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大英博物馆所藏的水晶头骨

水晶头骨是一些由透明或乳白色石英岩雕刻成的人类头骨,在艺术史上被称为水晶岩(rock crystal), 发现者声称其为前哥伦布时期中美洲文物。 但是没有科学研究证明任何水晶头骨制造于前哥伦布时期。研究的结果表示水晶头骨最早在19世纪雕刻, 几乎可以肯定为欧洲制造。[1] 一些文学作品中提到了水晶头骨神秘力量，但是并不存在于美洲原住民的传说中[2]

水晶头骨常常在科幻或奇幻作品中被描绘成超自然力量的象征[3] [4][5]

水晶头骨收集品 编辑

研究人员认为19世纪中叶出现的小型水晶头骨与19世纪末的实物尺寸水晶头骨有区别，研究人员认为，引起极大关注的大型的水晶头骨是在欧洲伪造的。

仿造前哥伦布时期文物的交易在19世纪末持续增长，以至于在1886年史密森尼学会考古学家威廉·亨利·霍尔姆斯为科学杂志写了一篇文章。[6] 博物馆很早就收购水晶头骨,但是欧仁·博班是与19世纪水晶头骨收藏品关系最密切的人. 他包括三颗水晶头骨在内的大部分收藏品, 买给了阿尔封斯·皮那特。

对水晶头骨起源的研究 编辑

大部分水晶头骨声称是前哥伦布时期的文物, 通常认为是阿兹特克或玛雅文明的文物。但是博物馆馆藏头骨没有考古发掘纪录[7] 1967年、1996年和2004年在大英博物馆对几颗水晶头骨进行的研究表示雕刻牙齿的锯齿创线条 (与Mitchell-Hedges skull不同，这三尊头骨没有下颌) 使用了于19世纪末发展的珠宝 旋转打磨工具, 对所谓前哥伦布时期文物的说法产生了质疑[8]在对晶体类型的检验中发现了巴西和马达加斯加特有的绿泥石，因此无法确定是前哥伦布时期中美洲文物。这项研究的结果认为水晶头骨是19世纪末在德国雕刻的，很可能是在19世纪末以进口巴西绿泥石而闻名的伊达尔-奥伯施泰因的作坊中雕刻的。[9]

已经确定，无论是大英博物馆和巴黎人类博物馆的水晶头骨[10]水晶头骨原本由巴黎古董商Eugène Boban出售。[11]大英博物馆从纽约蒂芙尼公司得到水晶头骨,而人类博物馆的水晶头骨由民族志研究者阿尔封斯·皮那特捐献。他在博班处购得此物。

1992年， 史密森尼学会对一匿名人士宣称在1960年购于墨西哥城的水晶头骨进行了研究。持有者宣称这尊头骨是阿兹特克文明的遗物，研究的结果表明这尊头骨在最近几年制成。根据史密森尼学会的研究，博班从德国获得了这些头骨，然后和大英博物馆取得了联系。[12]

《考古科学》杂志在2008年5月刊登了一个关于大英博物馆和史密森尼学会所藏头骨的详细研究。[13]英国和美国研究人员利用电子显微镜和X射线晶体学分析发现，大英博物馆的头骨是用如刚玉或金刚石作为磨料雕刻而成，在雕刻中还使用了金属的旋转打磨工具。史密尼森学会的水晶头骨使用了碳化硅作为磨料, 这种磨料是现代工业的产品。[14]因为碳化硅在1890年才被人工合成，因此研究人员得到结论，“应是20世纪50年代后制作的”.[15]

小型头骨的投机买卖 编辑

没有一尊水晶头骨有考古发掘纪录。一个相似的例子是黑曜石镜子，广泛流传的阿兹特克礼器。ritual objects widely depicted in Aztec art. Although a few surviving obsidian mirrors come from archaeological excavations,[16] none of the Aztec-style obsidian mirrors are so documented. Yet most authorities on Aztec material culture consider the Aztec-style obsidian mirrors as authentic pre-Columbian objects.[17] Archaeologist Michael E. Smith reports a non peer-reviewed find of a small crystal skull at an Aztec site in the Valley of Mexico.[18] Crystal skulls have been described as "A fascinating example of artifacts that have made their way into museums with no scientific evidence to prove their rumored pre-Columbian origins.[19] Until any crystal skulls are reported in peer-reviewed papers describing their excavation, Occam's Razor suggests that all of them are fabrications."

Individual skulls 编辑

Mitchell-Hedges skull 编辑

Perhaps the most famous and enigmatic skull was allegedly discovered in 1924 by Anna Le Guillon Mitchell-Hedges, adopted daughter of British adventurer and popularist author F.A. Mitchell-Hedges. It is the subject of a video documentary made in 1990, Crystal Skull of Labaantun.[20] It has been noted upon examination by Smithsonian researchers to be "very nearly a replica of the British Museum skull--almost exactly the same shape, but with more detailed modeling of the eyes and the teeth."[21]

Anna Hedges claimed that she found the skull buried under a collapsed altar inside a temple in Lubaantun, in British Honduras, now Belize.[22] As far as can be ascertained, F.A. Mitchell-Hedges himself made no mention of the alleged discovery in any of his writings on Lubaantun. Also, others present at the time of the excavation have not been documented as noting either the skull's discovery or Anna's presence at the dig.[23]

In a 1970 letter, Anna also stated that she was "told by the few remaining Maya, that the skull was used by the high priest to will death".[24] The artifact is sometimes referred to as "The Skull of Doom" as Mitchell-Hedges claimed it could be used to will death (see below). An alternative explanation [谁？] is a play on 'Skull of Dunn' (Dunn being an associate of Mitchell-Hedges)[來源請求]. Anna Mitchell-Hedges toured with the skull from 1967 exhibiting it on a pay-per-view basis,[25] and she continued to give interviews about the artifact until her death in 2007.

The skull is made from a block of clear quartz about the size of a small human cranium, measuring some 5 inches (13 cm) high, 7 inches (18 cm) long and 5 inches wide. The lower jaw is detached. In the early 1970s it came under the temporary care of freelance art restorer Frank Dorland, who claimed upon inspecting it that it had been "carved" with total disregard to the natural crystal axes without the use of metal tools. Dorland reported being unable to find any tell-tale scratch marks, except for traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth, and he speculated that it was first chiseled into rough form, probably using diamonds, and the finer shaping, grinding and polishing was achieved through the use of sand over a period of 150 to 300 years. He said it could be up to 12,000 years old. Although various claims have been made over the years regarding the skull's physical properties, such as an allegedly constant temperature of 70°F (21°C), Dorland reported that there was no difference in properties between it and other natural quartz crystals.[26]

While in Dorland's care the skull came to the attention of writer Richard Garvin, at the time working at an advertising agency where he supervised Hewlett-Packard's advertising account. Garvin made arrangements for the skull to be examined at HP's crystal labs at Santa Clara, where it was subjected to several tests. The labs determined only that it was not a composite (as Dorland had supposed), but that it was fashioned from a single crystal of quartz.[27] The lab test also established that the lower jaw had been fashioned from the same left-handed growing crystal as the rest of the skull.[28] No investigation was made by HP as to its method of manufacture or dating.[29]

As well as the traces of mechanical grinding on the teeth noted by Dorland,[30] Mayanist archaeologist Norman Hammond reported that the holes (presumed to be intended for support pegs) showed signs of being made by drilling with metal.[31] Anna Mitchell-Hedges refused subsequent requests to submit the skull for further scientific testing.[32]

F. A. Mitchell-Hedges mentioned the skull only briefly in the first edition of his autobiography, Danger My Ally (1954), without specifying where or by whom it was found.[33] He merely claimed that "it is at least 3,600 years old and according to legend it was used by the High Priest of the Maya when he was performing esoteric rites. It is said that when he willed death with the help of the skull, death invariably followed".[34] All subsequent editions of Danger My Ally omitted mention of the skull entirely.[32]

 
Eugène Boban, main French dealer in pre-Columbian artifacts during the second half of the 19th century and probable source of many famous skulls

The earliest published reference to the skull is the July 1936 issue of the British anthropological journal Man, where it is described as being in the possession of Mr. Sydney Burney, a London art dealer who is said to have owned it since 1933.[35] No mention was made of Mitchell-Hedges. There is documentary evidence that Mitchell-Hedges bought it from Burney in 1944.[32] The skull was in the custody of Anna Mitchell-Hedges, the adopted daughter of Frederick. She steadfastly refused to let it be examined by experts (making very doubtful the claim that it was reported on by R. Stansmore Nutting in 1962). Somewhere between 1988–1990 Anna Mitchell-Hedges toured with the skull.

In her last eight years, Anna Mitchell-Hedges lived in Chesterton, Indiana, with Bill Homann, whom she married in 2002. She died on April 11, 2007. Since that time the Mitchell-Hedges Skull has been in the custody of Bill Homann. In April 2009, Five, a television channel, took the story and revealed that the Mitchell-Hedges Skull, recently tested under a special microscope in the Smithsonian Institution, had been manufactured with tools that Aztecs and Mayans simply did not have. Like the other skulls, this one is a fabrication dating from the second half of the 19th century. Bill Homann however continues to believe in its mystical properties.[36]

British Museum skull 编辑

The crystal skull of the British Museum first appeared in 1881, in the shop of the Paris antiquarian, Eugène Boban. Its origin was not stated in his catalog of the time. He is said to have tried to sell it to Mexico's national museum as an Aztec artifact, but was unsuccessful. Boban later moved his business to New York City, where the skull was sold to George H. Sisson. It was exhibited at the meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in New York City in 1887 by George F. Kunz.[37] It was sold at auction, and bought by Tiffany and Co., who later sold it at cost to the British Museum in 1897.[38] This skull is very similar to the Mitchell-Hedges skull, although it is less detailed and does not have a movable lower jaw.[39]

The British Museum catalogs the skull's provenance as "probably European, 19th century AD"[40] and describes it as "not an authentic pre-Columbian artefact".[41] It has been established that this skull was made with modern tools, and that it is not authentic.[42]

Paris skull 编辑

 
Crystal skull at the Musée du quai Branly, Paris

The largest of the three skulls sold by Eugène Boban to Alphonse Pinart (sometimes called the Paris Skull), about 10 cm（4英寸） high, has a hole drilled vertically through its center.[43] It is part of a collection held at the Musée du Quai Branly, and was subjected to scientific tests carried out in 2007–08 by France's national Centre de recherche et de restauration des musées de France (Centre for Research and Restoration of the Museums in France, or C2RMF). After a series of analyses carried out over three months, C2RMF engineers concluded that it was "certainly not pre-Columbian, it shows traces of polishing and abrasion by modern tools."[44] Particle accelerator tests also revealed occluded traces of water that were dated to the 19th century, and the Quai Branly released a statement that the tests "seem to indicate that it was made late in the 19th century."[45]

In 2009 the C2RMF researchers published results of further investigations to establish when the Paris skull had been carved. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis indicated the use of lapidary machine tools in its carving. The results of a new dating technique known as quartz hydration dating (QHD) demonstrated that the Paris skull had been carved later than a reference quartz specimen artefact, known to have been cut in 1740. The researchers conclude that the SEM and QHD results combined with the skull's known provenance indicate it was carved in the 18th or 19th century.[46]

Smithsonian Skull 编辑

The Smithsonian skull was mailed to the Smithsonian anonymously in 1992, and was claimed to be an Aztec object by its donor and was purportedly from the collection of Porfirio Diaz. It is the largest of the skulls, weighing 31 pounds and is 15 inches high. It was carved using carborundum, a modern abrasive. It has been displayed as a fake at the National Museum of Natural History.[47]

Paranormal claims and spiritual associations 编辑

Some believers in the paranormal claim that crystal skulls can produce a variety of miracles. Ann Mitchell-Hedges claimed that the skull she allegedly discovered could cause visions, cure cancer, that she once used its magical properties to kill a man, and that in another instance, she saw in it a premonition of the John F. Kennedy assassination.[48] In the 1931 play The Satin Slipper, by Paul Claudel, King Philip II of Spain uses "a death's head made from a single piece of rock crystal," lit by "a ray of the setting sun," to see the defeat of his Armada in its attack on England (day 4, scene 4, pp. 243-44).[49]

Claims of the healing and supernatural powers of crystal skulls have no support in the scientific community, which has found no evidence of any unusual phenomena associated with the skulls nor any reason for further investigation, other than the confirmation of their provenance and method of manufacture.[50]

Another novel and historically unfounded speculation ties in the legend of the crystal skulls with the completion of the current Maya calendar b'ak'tun-cycle on December 21, 2012, claiming the re-uniting of the thirteen mystical skulls will forestall a catastrophe allegedly predicted or implied by the ending of this calendar. An airing of this claim appeared (among an assortment of others made) in The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls,[51] a 2008 program produced for the Sci Fi Channel in May and shown on Discovery Channel Canada in June. Interviewees included Richard Hoagland, who attempted to link the skulls and the Maya to life on Mars, and David Hatcher Childress, proponent of lost Atlantean civilizations and anti-gravity claims.

Crystal skulls are also referenced by author Drunvalo Melchizedek in his book Serpent of Light.[52] He writes that he came across indigenous Mayan descendants in possession of crystal skulls at ceremonies at temples in the Yucatan, which he writes contained souls of ancient Mayans who had entered the skulls to await the time when their ancient knowledge would once again be required. The book is a log of the authors experiences, which are related in a manner requiring suspension of judgment.

The alleged associations and origins of crystal skull mythology in Native American spiritual lore, as advanced by neoshamanic writers such as Jamie Sams, are similarly discounted.[53] Instead, as Philip Jenkins notes, crystal skull mythology may be traced back to the "baroque legends" initially spread by F.A. Mitchell-Hedges, and then afterwards taken up:

By the 1970s, the crystal skulls [had] entered New Age mythology as potent relics of ancient Atlantis, and they even acquired a canonical number: there were exactly thirteen skulls.
None of this would have anything to do with North American Indian matters, if the skulls had not attracted the attention of some of the most active New Age writers.[54]

See also 编辑

References 编辑

Notes 编辑

  1. ^ British Museum (n.d.-b), Jenkins (2004, p.217), Sax et al. (2008), Smith (2005), Walsh (1997; 2008)
  2. ^ Aldred (2000, passim.); Jenkins (2004, pp.218–219).
  3. ^ 例如Stargate SG-1 (season 3)65集, "水晶头骨".
  4. ^ 参考 Max McCoy 的印第安那琼斯系列小说 (1995, 1996, 1997, 1999).
  5. ^ 例如电视游戏Legend of the Crystal Skull、Illusion of Gaia.
  6. ^ "'The Trade in Spurious Mexican Antiquities"' for Science，Holmes (1886)
  7. ^ Walsh (2008)
  8. ^ Craddock (2009, p.415)
  9. ^ British Museum (n.d.-b); Craddock (2009, p.415).
  10. ^ 巴黎人类博物馆的水晶头骨大约是真实头骨的一半大
  11. ^ 参看"The mystery of the British Museum's crystal skull is solved. It's a fake", The Independent (Connor 2005). 同样参考大英博物馆对水晶头骨的公开声明(the Museum's issued public statement on its crystal skull) (British Museum n.d.-c).
  12. ^ 参见史密森尼学会人类学家简·沃尔什与大英博物馆的材料学家玛格丽特·萨克斯的联合调查报告，该报告证明水晶头骨是19世纪的赝品, 见 Smith (2005). 同样参见Walsh (1997).
  13. ^ Sax et al. (2008)
  14. ^ 碳化硅于1893年第一次在自然界的陨石中发现，在自然界中只有很小的储量。 参见See summary of the discovery and history of silicon carbide in Kelly (n.d.)
  15. ^ 参见在Rincon中的报告 (2008), 以及Sax et al.关于这项研究的内容 (2008).
  16. ^ Such as at Teotihuacan; see Taube (1992).
  17. ^ See for eg Olivier (2003).
  18. ^ Michael E. Smith, "Aztec Crystal Skulls," Publishing Archaeology Blog
  19. ^ Smithsonian puts its fake- crystal skull- on display. San Francisco Chronicle. 2008, (July 18) [2008-09-21]. 
  20. ^ Crystal Skull of Labaantun (1990). [2008-07-20]. 
  21. ^ Walsh (2008). See also the 1936 debate on its resemblance to the British Museum skull, in Digby (1936) and Morant (1936), passim.
  22. ^ See Garvin (1973, caption to photo 25); also Nickell (2007, p.67).
  23. ^ Nickell (2007, pp.68–69)
  24. ^ Garvin (1973, p.93)
  25. ^ Hammond (2008)
  26. ^ Dorland, in a May 1983 letter to Joe Nickell, cited in Nickell (2007, p.70).
  27. ^ See Garvin (1973, pp.75–76), also Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.9). The test conducted involved immersing the skull in a liquid (Benzyl alcohol) with the same diffraction coefficient and viewing it under polarized light.
  28. ^ Garvin (1973, pp.75–76); Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.9).
  29. ^ Hewlett-Packard (1971, p.10).
  30. ^ Garvin (1973, p.84); also cited in Nickell (2007, p.70).
  31. ^ Hammond, in a May 1983 letter to Nickell, cited in Nickell (2007, p.70). See also Hammond's recounting of his meeting with Anna Mitchell-Hedges and the skull in an article written for The Times, in Hammond (2008).
  32. ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 Nickell (2007, p.69)
  33. ^ See Mitchell-Hedges (1954, pp.240–243); also description of same in the chapter "Riddle of the Crystal Skulls", in Nickell (2007, pp.67–73).
  34. ^ Mitchell-Hedges' quote, as reproduced in Nickell (2007, p.67).
  35. ^ See Morant (1936, p.105), and comments in Digby (1936). See also discussion of the prior ownership in Nickell (2007, p.69).
  36. ^ Stelzer, C.D. The kingdom of the crystal skull. Illinois Times. 2008-06-12 [2009-02-08]. 
  37. ^ A Great Labor Problem. It Receives Attention from the Scientists. They devote attention, too, to a beautiful adze and a mysterious crystal skull.. New York Times. 1887, (August 13) [2008-07-17]. 
  38. ^ British Museum (n.d.-a, n.d.-b)
  39. ^ Digby (1936)
  40. ^ British Museum (n.d.-a)
  41. ^ British Museum (n.d.-c). See also articles on the investigations which established it to be a fake, in Connor (2005), Jury (2005), Smith (2005), and Walsh (1997, 2008).
  42. ^ Rincon (2008), Sax et al. (2008)
  43. ^ Kunz (1890, pp.285–286), see description in "Ch. XIV: Mexico & Central America"
  44. ^ Quote reported by Agence France-Presse, see Rosemberg (2008).
  45. ^ Quote reported by Agence France-Presse, see Rosemberg (2008). See also Walsh (2008).
  46. ^ Calligaro et al. (2009, abstract)
  47. ^ Smithsonian Puts Mysterious Crystal Skull on Display. [7-10-2008]. 
  48. ^ Various authors. "The Crystal Skulls" Skeptic magazine. Vol. 14, No. 2. 2008. Page 89.
  49. ^ Claudel, Paul. The Satin Slipper. Trans. John O'Connor and Paul Claudel. London: Sheed & Ward, 1931. Originally published as Le Soulier de Satin (Paris: Nouvelle Revue Française).
  50. ^ See Nickell (2007, pp.67–73); Smith (2005); Walsh (1997; 2008).
  51. ^ The Mystery of the Crystal Skulls (television program). New York: Peacock Productions (NBC), in association with the Sci Fi Channel. May 2008 [2008-06-06].  已忽略未知参数|distributor=（建议使用|publisher=） (帮助); 已忽略未知参数|crew= (帮助)
  52. ^ Serpent of Light - Beyond 2012, ISBN 1578634016
  53. ^ See discussion of the various claims put forward by Sams, Kenneth Meadows, Harley Swift Deer Reagan and others concerning crystal skulls, extra-terrestrials, and Native American lore, in Jenkins (2004, pp.215–218).
  54. ^ Quotation from Jenkins (2004, pp.217–218).

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Walsh, Jane MacLaren. Crystal skulls and other problems: or, “don't look it in the eye”. Amy Henderson and Adrienne L. Kaeppler (eds.) (编). Exhibiting Dilemmas: Issues of Representation at the Smithsonian. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1997. ISBN 1560986905. OCLC 34598037. 
Walsh, Jane MacLaren. What is Real? A New Look at PreColumbian Mesoamerican Collections (PDF online publication). AnthroNotes: Museum of Natural History Publication for Educators (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum of Natural History Anthropology Outreach Office). 2005, 26 (1): 1–7,17–19. ISSN 1548-6680. OCLC 8029636.  已忽略未知参数|month=（建议使用|date=） (帮助)
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