民主倒退

民主倒退（英語：Democratic backsliding），又稱專制化（英語：autocratization）^[1]^[2]^[a] ，是一個政治學術語，用以描述政治體制中民主特徵的減少^[9] ，是民主化的反義詞。

簡介

雖然自冷戰結束以來通過軍事政變進行的政權更迭有所減少，但更微妙的民主倒退形式卻有所增加。在20世紀後期的第三次民主化浪潮中，許多新的、制度化薄弱的民主國家建立起來。正是這些政權最容易受到民主倒退的影響。^[10]^[11]自2010年自由民主國家數量到達歷史最高點以來，第三波專制化浪潮一直在持續。^[12]^[13]

在民主國家，民主倒退是由於國家主導的民主制度的政治制度，例如權力的和平過渡或自由公正的選舉，被削弱而造成的。對作為民主基礎的個人權利，尤其是言論自由的侵犯，隨着時間的推移，對民主制度的健康、效率和可持續性提出了質疑。^[14]^[11]

在國家處於巨大危機期間，尤其存在民主倒退的風險。當領導人在緊急狀態期間實施與危機嚴重程度不成比例的獨裁規則在局勢改善後仍然存在時，就會發生這種情況。^[15]

表現

當民主的重要組成部分受到威脅時，就會形成民主倒退現象。民主倒退的表現包括：^[16]^[17]

自由和公平的選舉被降格；^[16]
言論、新聞^[18]和結社自由受到限制，削弱了反對派挑戰政府、追究政府責任並提出替代現政權的能力；^[16]^[18]
法治（即對政府的司法和官僚限制）被削弱，^[16]例如當司法獨立受到威脅，或者當公務員任期保護被削弱或取消時。^[19]
對恐怖主義行為或反對派，過分強調國家安全。^[19]

延伸閱讀

Andersen, David. Comparative Democratization and Democratic Backsliding: The Case for a Historical-Institutional Approach. Comparative Politics. July 2019, 51 (4): 645–663. JSTOR 26663952. S2CID 201373568. doi:10.5129/001041519X15647434970117.
Bieber, Florian. The Rise of Authoritarianism in the Western Balkans. Springer Nature. 2019. ISBN 978-3-030-22149-2 （英語）.
Cheeseman, Nic; Klaas, Brian. How to Rig an Election. New Haven. 2018. ISBN 978-0-300-20443-8.
Daly, Tom Gerald. Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. April 2019, 11 (1): 9–36. S2CID 159354232. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2.
Haggard, Stephan; Kaufman, Robert. Backsliding: Democratic Regress in the Contemporary World. Cambridge University Press. 2021. ISBN 978-1-108-95840-0 （英語）.
Foa, Roberto Stefan; Mounk, Yascha. The Danger of Deconsolidation: The Democratic Disconnect. Journal of Democracy. 2016, 27 (3): 5–17 [2022-09-27]. S2CID 156622248. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0049. （原始內容存檔於2019-03-11）.
Jee, Haemin; Lueders, Hans; Myrick, Rachel (2021). "Towards a unified approach to research on democratic backsliding". Democratization
Klaas, Brian. Despot's Accomplice: How the West is Aiding and Abetting the Decline of Democracy. Hurst Publishers. 2016. ISBN 978-1-84904-930-6.
Levitsky, Steven; Ziblatt, Daniel. How Democracies Die. New York: Crown. 2018. ISBN 978-1-5247-6293-3.
Levitsky, Steven; Way, Lucan A. Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes After the Cold War. 2010. ISBN 9780511781353. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511781353.
Przeworski, Adam. 2019. Crises of Democracy. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Qvortrup, Matt. Death by a Thousand Cuts: The Slow Demise of Democracy. De Gruyter. 2021. ISBN 978-3-11-071332-9 （英語）.
Waldner, David; Lust, Ellen. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018-05-11, 21 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628  .

注釋

^ Other names include: democratic decline,^[3] de-democratization,^[4] democratic erosion,^[5] democratic decay,^[6] democratic recession,^[7] democratic regression,^[3] and democratic deconsolidation^[8]

參考資料

^ Skaaning, Svend-Erik. Waves of autocratization and democratization: a critical note on conceptualization and measurement. Democratization. 2020, 27 (8): 1533–1542. S2CID 225378571. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1799194.
^ Lührmann, Anna; Lindberg, Staffan I. A third wave of autocratization is here: what is new about it?. Democratization. 2019, 26 (7): 1095–1113. S2CID 150992660. doi:10.1080/13510347.2019.1582029  . The decline of democratic regime attributes – autocratization
^ ^3.0 ^3.1 Mietzner, Marcus. Sources of resistance to democratic decline: Indonesian civil society and its trials. Democratization. 2021, 28 (1): 161–178. S2CID 225475139. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1796649.
^ Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) Populism: a Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.86-96. ISBN 978-0-19-023487-4
^ Laebens, Melis G.; Lührmann, Anna. What halts democratic erosion? The changing role of accountability. Democratization. 2021, 28 (5): 908–928. S2CID 234870008. doi:10.1080/13510347.2021.1897109.
^ Daly, Tom Gerald. Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. 2019, 11: 9–36. S2CID 159354232. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2.
^ Huq, Aziz Z. How (not) to explain a democratic recession. International Journal of Constitutional Law. 2021, 19 (2): 723–737. doi:10.1093/icon/moab058.
^ Chull Shin, Doh. Democratic deconsolidation in East Asia: exploring system realignments in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Democratization. 2021, 28 (1): 142–160. S2CID 228959708. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1826438.
^ Walder, D.; Lust, E. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018, 21 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628  . Backsliding entails a deterioration of qualities associated with democratic governance, within any regime. In democratic regimes, it is a decline in the quality of democracy; in autocracies, it is a decline in democratic qualities of governance.
^ Bermeo, Nancy. On Democratic Backsliding (PDF). Journal of Democracy. January 2016, 27 (1): 5–19 [2019-04-26]. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 155798358. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0012. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-03-29）.
^ ^11.0 ^11.1 Rocha Menocal, Alina; Fritz, Verena; Rakner, Lise. Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1. South African Journal of International Affairs. June 2008, 15 (1): 29–40 [2021-01-27]. ISSN 1022-0461. S2CID 55589140. doi:10.1080/10220460802217934. （原始內容存檔於2020-01-21）（英語）.
^ Maerz, Seraphine F.; Lührmann, Anna; Hellmeier, Sebastian; Grahn, Sandra; Lindberg, Staffan I. State of the world 2019: autocratization surges – resistance grows. Democratization. 2020-05-18, 27 (6): 909–927. ISSN 1351-0347. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1758670  .
^ Boese, Vanessa A.; Lundstedt, Martin; Morrison, Kelly; Sato, Yuko; Lindberg, Staffan I. State of the world 2021: autocratization changing its nature?. Democratization. 2022: 1–31 [2022-09-27]. ISSN 1351-0347. S2CID 249031421. doi:10.1080/13510347.2022.2069751. （原始內容存檔於2022-05-26）.
^ Lindberg, Staffan I. The Nature of Democratic Backsliding in Europe. Carnegie Europe. [2021-01-27]. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-13）（英語）.
^ Pandemic Backsliding. www.v-dem.net. V-Dem. [2021-01-23]. （原始內容存檔於2020-12-21）.
^ ^16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 How democratic backsliding happens. Democracy Digest. 2017-02-21 [2017-06-23]. （原始內容存檔於2020-04-17）.
^ Waldner, David; Lust, Ellen. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018-05-11, 21 (1): 93–113. ISSN 1094-2939. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628  （英語）.
^ ^18.0 ^18.1 Diamond, Larry. Democratic regression in comparative perspective: scope, methods, and causes. Democratization. 2020-09-15, 28: 22–42. ISSN 1351-0347. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1807517  .
^ ^19.0 ^19.1 Huq, Aziz; Ginsburg, Tom. How to lose a constitutional democracy. Vox'. 2017-02-21 [2017-09-05]. （原始內容存檔於2021-02-16）.

[9] Other names include: democratic decline,^[3] de-democratization,^[4] democratic erosion,^[5] democratic decay,^[6] democratic recession,^[7] democratic regression,^[3] and democratic deconsolidation^[8]

[Skaaning-1] Skaaning, Svend-Erik. Waves of autocratization and democratization: a critical note on conceptualization and measurement. Democratization. 2020, 27 (8): 1533–1542. S2CID 225378571. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1799194.

[2] Lührmann, Anna; Lindberg, Staffan I. A third wave of autocratization is here: what is new about it?. Democratization. 2019, 26 (7): 1095–1113. S2CID 150992660. doi:10.1080/13510347.2019.1582029  . The decline of democratic regime attributes – autocratization

[Mietzner-3] 3.0 ^3.1 Mietzner, Marcus. Sources of resistance to democratic decline: Indonesian civil society and its trials. Democratization. 2021, 28 (1): 161–178. S2CID 225475139. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1796649.

[4] Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) Populism: a Very Short Introduction. New York: Oxford University Press. pp.86-96. ISBN 978-0-19-023487-4

[5] Laebens, Melis G.; Lührmann, Anna. What halts democratic erosion? The changing role of accountability. Democratization. 2021, 28 (5): 908–928. S2CID 234870008. doi:10.1080/13510347.2021.1897109.

[Daly-6] Daly, Tom Gerald. Democratic Decay: Conceptualising an Emerging Research Field. Hague Journal on the Rule of Law. 2019, 11: 9–36. S2CID 159354232. doi:10.1007/s40803-019-00086-2.

[7] Huq, Aziz Z. How (not) to explain a democratic recession. International Journal of Constitutional Law. 2021, 19 (2): 723–737. doi:10.1093/icon/moab058.

[8] Chull Shin, Doh. Democratic deconsolidation in East Asia: exploring system realignments in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Democratization. 2021, 28 (1): 142–160. S2CID 228959708. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1826438.

[:2-10] Walder, D.; Lust, E. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018, 21 (1): 93–113. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628  . Backsliding entails a deterioration of qualities associated with democratic governance, within any regime. In democratic regimes, it is a decline in the quality of democracy; in autocracies, it is a decline in democratic qualities of governance.

[:02-11] Bermeo, Nancy. On Democratic Backsliding (PDF). Journal of Democracy. January 2016, 27 (1): 5–19 [2019-04-26]. ISSN 1086-3214. S2CID 155798358. doi:10.1353/jod.2016.0012. （原始內容存檔 (PDF)於2021-03-29）.

[Rocha_Menocal_29–40-12] 11.0 ^11.1 Rocha Menocal, Alina; Fritz, Verena; Rakner, Lise. Hybrid regimes and the challenges of deepening and sustaining democracy in developing countries1. South African Journal of International Affairs. June 2008, 15 (1): 29–40 [2021-01-27]. ISSN 1022-0461. S2CID 55589140. doi:10.1080/10220460802217934. （原始內容存檔於2020-01-21）（英語）.

[13] Maerz, Seraphine F.; Lührmann, Anna; Hellmeier, Sebastian; Grahn, Sandra; Lindberg, Staffan I. State of the world 2019: autocratization surges – resistance grows. Democratization. 2020-05-18, 27 (6): 909–927. ISSN 1351-0347. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1758670  .

[14] Boese, Vanessa A.; Lundstedt, Martin; Morrison, Kelly; Sato, Yuko; Lindberg, Staffan I. State of the world 2021: autocratization changing its nature?. Democratization. 2022: 1–31 [2022-09-27]. ISSN 1351-0347. S2CID 249031421. doi:10.1080/13510347.2022.2069751. （原始內容存檔於2022-05-26）.

[15] Lindberg, Staffan I. The Nature of Democratic Backsliding in Europe. Carnegie Europe. [2021-01-27]. （原始內容存檔於2021-04-13）（英語）.

[16] Pandemic Backsliding. www.v-dem.net. V-Dem. [2021-01-23]. （原始內容存檔於2020-12-21）.

[DemDigest-17] 16.0 ^16.1 ^16.2 ^16.3 How democratic backsliding happens. Democracy Digest. 2017-02-21 [2017-06-23]. （原始內容存檔於2020-04-17）.

[:0-18] Waldner, David; Lust, Ellen. Unwelcome Change: Coming to Terms with Democratic Backsliding. Annual Review of Political Science. 2018-05-11, 21 (1): 93–113. ISSN 1094-2939. doi:10.1146/annurev-polisci-050517-114628  （英語）.

[:15-19] 18.0 ^18.1 Diamond, Larry. Democratic regression in comparative perspective: scope, methods, and causes. Democratization. 2020-09-15, 28: 22–42. ISSN 1351-0347. doi:10.1080/13510347.2020.1807517  .

[HuqGinsburgVox-20] 19.0 ^19.1 Huq, Aziz; Ginsburg, Tom. How to lose a constitutional democracy. Vox'. 2017-02-21 [2017-09-05]. （原始內容存檔於2021-02-16）.

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