自我提升
自我提升（英語：Self-enhancement）或稱自我膨脹、自我拉抬是人的一種動機，有些人通過它使自己自我感覺良好和保持自尊[1]，在受到威脅、遭遇失敗和自尊心被打擊時相對多見[2][3][4]。自我提升時，人們傾向於接受正面的自我概念[5]。自我提升使得人們改變控制自身行為的自律過程。它是四種自我評估動機之一，其他三種為自我評定（尋求準確自我概念的動機）、自我驗證（尋求與自我感覺一致的自我概念的動機）和自我改善（改良自我概念的行為）。
人們可以使用很多策略提升自己的個人價值感知，比如忽視自己不擅長的方面、通過比較並批評他人讓自己感覺更好。通過這些策略，人們趨向認為自己比別人優點更多，缺點更少[6]。自我提升的人群中既有高自尊心者也有低自尊心者，但各自使用的策略不同。高自尊心者會通過偏差地處理信息，直接提升自我概念；低自尊者通過更間接的策略，如避免暴露缺點的情況出現[7]。
自我提升是否對個體有利的問題是有爭議的。
結果 編輯
自我提升策略的影響顯示在人們將自己視為比別人的優點更多，前途更光明[6]。
自我提升三元素 編輯
人們通常對自己有着不切實際的個人價值感知，這些自我滿足的看法可以被歸為三類，稱之為正面錯覺三元素[8]，他們是：超過平均效應[9]、控制錯覺[10]和不切實際的樂觀[11]。很多情境下，這三種錯覺都會出現，而且很難校正。諷刺的是，當被告知這些錯覺的存在時，人們普遍認為自己比別人出現得更少[12]。
超過平均效應 編輯
優於常人效應是超過平均效應的最常見證明。此效應十分頑固，即使條件與其他被評價個體完全相同時，人們仍然會對自己作出更高的評價。[9]人們也會對與自己相關的事物給予更高的優越感，人們認為自己的親密朋友[13][14]和個人財產[15]高於其他人。然而當成果被認為是需要精湛技巧的，人們通常會謹慎而表現出劣於常人效應。例如，多數人會把自己騎獨輪車能力評為低於常人。
多數人超過平均在很多下是不可能的，比如在對稱分佈情況下，此時 平均數 = 中位數 = 眾數 。[16]或者非對稱分佈的情況下，此時平均數 < 中位數 < 眾數 或 眾數 < 中位數 < 平均數。然而在非對稱分佈的情況下，如果把平均數或者眾數看作平均值，多數人超過平均則是可能的。
人們在很多方面上的自我提升的原因是超過平均效應。人們通常傾向於在有正面、合意的結果的事物中顯示出高於平均，在負面、不合意的事物中低於平均。
超過平均效應現象包括：
- 多數大學生認為自己的禮儀、運動技能和領導力是前50%卓越的。[17][18][19]
- 語法和邏輯領域的12%優秀者也會認為自己的水平是前62%。[20]
- 94%的大學教授認為自己的教學能力高於平均水平。[21]
- 英國和美國的大學生認為自己的駕駛能力高於平均水平駕駛員。[22]即使是因造成車禍住院的駕駛員，也認為自己不比普通駕駛員差。[23]
- 即使在被告知優於常人效應後，人們也認為自己受此偏差之影響少於他人。[24]
控制錯覺 編輯
人們會高估自己控制結果和偶然的能力[25] ，實際無關時認為自己的行為是有影響的[26]。人們也相信他們可以影響本身隨機的系統，如彩票，尤其是對於與技巧相關的任務。儘管偶然性一定程度上存在於行為和結果中，但它被人們高估了[26]。
不切實際的樂觀 編輯
人們通常相信自己將經歷的好事比同類人多，壞事比同齡人少。[11][27][28]人們對於像戀人、好朋友一樣的同伴也會有不切實際的樂觀，但是程度小些。[29]
不切實際的樂觀明顯出現在人們多種情境下的行為和看法中。人們會高估自己預測未來的能力[30]以及低估自己完成任務的所需時間[31]。人們高估自己社會預測的準確度[32]，並將個人正面結果解讀為價值更高，負面結果解讀為價值更低[33]。令人擔心的是，吸煙者會低估自己相對於不吸煙的癌症風險，甚至會與同類吸煙者比較[34]。
對個體的利弊 編輯
自我提升是否有利於個體的適應度是存在爭議的。[35][36]多種動機可以影響自我提升的出現，因此既有好處，又有壞處。[37]對自己表現評估出錯的人（同時包括自我提升者和自我低估者）易於獲得較低的學習成績，其他表現也更差。各種文化中，似乎都會出現此種現象。[38]
兩種定義中使用哪種是有爭議的。有的研究者人為前一種不算自我提升。[43]
一些研究顯示，自我提升與心理水平良好有強烈關係[44]，另一些研究恰恰相反，說與心理水平糟糕有關[41]。 自我提升也有社會代價。對九一一恐怖襲擊倖存者的治療中發現，自我提升者的朋友和家人把他們的社會適應度和誠實評為降低。[45]
參考資料 編輯
參考 編輯
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The self-enhancement motive refers to people's desire to enhance the positivity or decrease the negativity of the self-concept.
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來源 編輯
- Baumeister, Roy F., The Self in Social Psychology, Psychology Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-86377-572-7
- Hogg, Michael A.; Vaughan, Graham M., Social Psychology, Pearson Education, 2008, ISBN 978-0-13-206931-1
- Kunda, Ziva, Social Cognition: Making Sense of People, MIT Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-262-61143-5, OCLC 40618974
延伸閱讀 編輯
- Edward Chin-Ho Chang: Self-Criticism and Self-Enhancement. American Psychological Association, 2008 ISBN 978-1-4338-0115-0
- Hogg, Michael A.; Cooper, Joel, The Sage Handbook of Social Psychology, Sage, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7619-6636-4
- Mark R Leary & June Price Tangney: Handbook of Self and Identity. Guilford Press, 2005 ISBN 978-1-59385-237-5
外部連結 編輯
- Sedikides vs. Heine debate (videos)
- Constantine Sedikides' （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） Home Page;
- Home Page of Steven Heine （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館）
- University of Southampton's Centre for Research on Self and Identity （頁面存檔備份，存於互聯網檔案館） Home Page
- International Society for Self and Identity.