讨论:冷核聚变

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开头

A panel organized by the U.S. Department of Energy concluded there was no convincing evidence that useful sources of energy would result from the phenomena attributed to cold fusion. By the mid-1990s, most governments and scientists in the United States and Europe had dismissed the concept as illusion.

Babel Fish翻译

A panel由美国能源部组织结束那里是有用的能源会起因于现象归因于冷聚变的没有令人相信的证据。在90 年代中期以前, 多数政府和科学家在团结的状态和欧洲驳回了概念作为幻觉。

Since then, many scientists with a variety of credentials have contributed to the field or participated in the international conferences on cold fusion. Independent replication of excess heat and other effects have been reported in specialized peer reviewed journals. The sophistication of calorimeters had made significant progress, a DOE panel observed in 2004, and evidence of power that cannot be attributed to ordinary sources was more compelling than in 1989. Still, its report said, many experiments were poorly documented, the magnitude of the effect had not increased, it was not easily repeatable, and a nuclear cause was generally rejected. The panel decided against a major federally-funded research program, and identified several areas of scientific inquiry that might resolve some of the controversies.

Babel Fish翻译

从那以后, 许多科学家与各种各样的证件对领域贡献了或参加了关于冷聚变的国际会议。剩余热的独立复制和其它作用被报告了在专业同辈被回顾的学报里。测热器的优雅获得了重大进展, 2004 年DOE panel被观察, 1989 年并且无法归因于普通的来源力量的证据强制比。但是, 它的报告说, 许多实验穷地被提供了, 作用的巨大未增加, 它容易地不是反复性的, 并且核起因一般rejected 。盘区决定了反对一个主要联邦被资助的研究方案, 和辨认了也许解决一些争论科学询问的几个区域。

概观

When water is electrolyzed in a closed cell surrounded by a calorimeter, we can account for all energy transfer using the theories of electricity, thermodynamics and chemistry: the electrical input energy, the heat accumulated in the cell, the chemical storage of energy and the heat leaving the cell balance out. When the cathode is made of palladium, and heavy water is used instead of light water, we expect to observe the same conservation of energy.

Babel Fish翻译

当水电解在一个闭合的细胞由测热器围拢, 我们能占所有能量转移使用电、热力学和化学的理论: 电力输入能量, 热积累了在细胞、能量化工存贮和热忽略细胞平衡。当负极由钯制成, 并且重水被使用代替轻水, 我们准备观察同样能源节约。

What Fleischmann and Pons said they observed, to their own astonishment, was that, in some cases, the heat measured by the calorimeter exceeded the expectations. When they calculated the power density based on the volume of the cathode, they reached a value too high to be explained by chemical reactions. As a consequence, they concluded that the effect must be nuclear, although they lacked evidence for it.

Babel Fish翻译

What Fleischmann 和Pons认为他们观察了, 对他们自己的惊讶, 是, 在某些情况下, 热由测热器测量超出了期望。当他们计算了功率密度根据负极的容量, 他们太高到达了价值由化学反应解释。结果他们认为作用必须核, 虽然他们缺乏证据为它。

Others have tried to replicate the excess heat observations. Many failed, but some succeded and reported high power densities in peer reviewed journals such as the Japanese Journal of Applied Physics and the Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry.[2]. Some researchers believe that the experimental evidences are sufficient to establish the scientific validity of the effect, but others reject those evidences, and the 2004 DOE review left the panel evenly split on the issue (a significant change compared to the 1989 panel which rejected all evidences).

Babel Fish翻译

其他人设法复制剩余热观察。许多未通过, 但一些成功和报告了大功率密度在同辈被回顾的学报里譬如应用的物理日本学报和Electroanalytical Chemistry.一些研究员相信, 实验性证据是充足建立作用的科学有效性, 但其他人拒绝了那些证据, 和2004 年DOE回顾panel均匀地被分裂关于问题(重大的变动与拒绝所有证据) 的1989 比较了panel。

The search of the products of nuclear fusion has resulted in conflicting evidences, leading two thirds of the DOE reviewers to exclude the possibility of nuclear reactions in these experiments in 2004. One additional reason for many to exclude a nuclear origin for the effect is that current physics theory cannot explain how fusion could occur in these experiments, and how the energy generated could be converted into heat (as opposed to radiation or other nuclear products). Still, in 2006, Mosier-Boss and Szpak, researchers in the U.S. Navy's Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center San Diego, reported unambiguous evidences of nuclear reactions, which still need to be independently replicated.[3]

Our current knowledge of the effect, if it exists, is insufficient to expect commercial applications soon. The 2004 DOE panel identified several areas that could be further studied using appropriate scientific methods.

Babel Fish翻译

核裂变产品的查寻导致矛盾的证据, 2004 年带领DOE评论者的三分之二排除核反应的可能性在这些实验。许多的一个另外的原因排除一个核起源为作用是, 当前的物理理论无法解释怎么融合能发生在这些实验, 并且怎么能量引起能被转换成热(与辐射或其它核产品相对) 。但是, 2006 年, Mosier 上司和Szpak, 研究员在美国海军的空间和海战系统中心圣地亚哥, 被报告核反应的毫不含糊的证据, 仍然需要独立地是复制品.作用的我们的通用知识, 如果它存在, 是不足很快期待商务应用。2004 年DOE panel辨认了能进一步被学习运用适当的科学方法的几个区域。

实验证据额外热量检测

The cold fusion researchers presenting their review document to the 2004 DoE panel on cold fusion said that the possibility of calorimetric errors has been carefully considered, studied, tested and ultimately rejected by cold fusion researchers. They explain that, in 1989, Fleischmann and Pons used an open cell from which energy was lost in a variety of ways: the differential equation used to determine excess energy was awkward and subject to misunderstanding, and the method had an error of 1% or less. Recognizing these issues, SRI International and other research teams used a flow calorimeter around closed cells: the governing equations become trivial, and the method has an error of 0.5 % or better. Over 50 experiments conducted by SRI International showed excess power well above the accuracy of measurement. Arata and Zhang have observed excess heat power averaging 80 watts over 12 days. The researchers also said that the amount of energy reported in some of the experiments appears to be too great compared to the small mass of material in the cell, for it to be stored by any chemical process. Their control experiments using light water never showed excess heat.While Storms says that light water is an impurity that can kill the effect,Miley and others have reported low energy nuclear reactions with light water.

Babel Fish翻译

冷聚变研究员提出他们的回顾文件对2004 年母鹿盘区在冷聚变说, 量热法错误的可能性仔细地被考虑了, 学习了, 由冷聚变研究员测试和最后拒绝。他们解释, 1989 年Fleischmann 和Pons使用了能量丢失用各种各样的方式的一个开放细胞: 微分方程使用确定剩余能量笨拙和依于误解, 并且方法有错误1% 或较少。认可这些问题, SRI 国际和其它研究小组使用了流程测热器在闭合的细胞附近: 治理的等式变得琐细, 并且方法有0.5 % 错误或更好。50 次试验由SRI 国际被显示的剩余力量做很好在测量之上准确性。Arata 和张观察剩余热力量平均为80 瓦特12 天。研究员并且说, 相当数量能量被报告在一些实验看来是太伟大的与材料比较小大量在细胞, 使它由任一个化学过程存放。他们的控制实验使用轻水从未显示了剩余热。当Storms认为轻水是可能杀害附加价值的杂质, Miley 和其他人报告了低能量核反应与轻水。

When asked whether the evidence for power that cannot be attribued to ordinary chemical or solid state source is compelling or inexistent, the 2004 DoE panel was evenly split. Many reviewers in the panel noted that poor experiment design, documentation, background control and other similar issues hampered the understanding and interpretation of the results presented to the DoE panel. The reviewers who did not find the production of excess power convincing said that excess power in the short term is not the same as net energy production over the entire of time of an experiment, that all possible chemical and solid state causes of excess heat have not been investigated and eliminated as an explanation, that the magnitude of the effect has not increased in over a decade of work, or that production over a period of time is a few percent of the external power applied and hence calibration and systematic effects could account for the purported effect.

Other evidences of heat generation not reviewed by the DOE include the detection of hot spots by infrared (see picture), the detection of mini-explosions by a piezoelectric substrate, and the observation of discrete sites exhibiting molten-like features that require substantial energy expenditure.

Babel Fish翻译

当问是否证据为无法是的力量认为是对普通的化学制品或固态来源是强制或不存在的, 2004 年DOE panel均匀地被分裂了。许多评论者在Panel注意到, 粗劣的实验设计、文献、背景控制和其它相似的问题阻碍了结果的理解和解释被提出对DOE panel。没有发现剩余力量说服生产说的评论者剩余力量近期像净发电不是相同在整个实验的时期, 所有剩余热的可能的化学制品和固体起因未被调查和未被消灭作为解释, 作用的巨大未增加完全成功在十年工作, 或生产经过一段时间是外部电力被申请和因此定标和系统的作用的几百分之能占被声称的作用。其它热世代的证据由母鹿没回顾包括热点的侦查由红外线(参见图片), 微型爆炸的侦查由一个压电基体, 和分离站点的观察陈列溶解像要求坚固能量开支的特点。

核反应产物

For a nuclear reaction to be proposed as the source of energy, it is necessary to show that the amount of energy is related to the amount of nuclear products. When asked about evidences of low energy nuclear reactions, two thirds of the 2004 DOE panel did not feel that there was any conclusive evidence, five found the evidence "somewhat convincing" and one was entirely convinced.

If the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of two deuterium atoms, the most probable outcome, according to current theory, would be the generation of either a tritium and a proton, or a 3He and a neutron. The level of protons, tritium, neutrons and 3He actually observed in Fleischmann-Pons experiment have been higher than current theory asserts, but well below the level expected in view of the heat generated, implying that these reactions cannot explain it.

If the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of two deuterium atoms into 4He, a reaction which is normally extremely rare, 4Helium and gamma rays would be generated. Miles et al. reported that 4helium was indeed generated in quantity consistent with the excess heat, but no studies have shown levels of gamma rays consistent with the excess heat.Current nuclear theory cannot explain these results. Researchers are puzzled that some experiments produce heat without 4Helium.Critics note that great care must be used to prevent contamination by helium naturally present in atmospheric air.

Although there appears to be evidence of transmutations and isotope shifts near the cathode surface in some experiments, cold fusion researchers generally consider that these anomalies are not the ash associated with the primary excess heat effect.

In 2006, experimental evidence of nuclear activity was demonstrated by the use of a standard nuclear track detector called a CR-39. Photographs show scarring of the detector which is consistent with nuclear activity. The intensity and pattern of the scarring appears to rule out anomalous sources such as background radiation as the cause. The research was first presented at a science conference in Washington, D.C. on August 2, 2006. A detailed article appeared in New Energy Times, an online news magazine on November 10, 2006.

Babel Fish翻译

为一个核反应提议作为能源, 它是必要表示, 相当数量能量与相当数量核产品有关。当询问低能量核反应的证据, panel没有认为2004 年的三分之二DOE有任一确凿的证据, 五发现证据"令人相信有些" 并且你整个地被说服了。如果剩余热由二氘原子的热的融合引起了, 最可能的结果, 根据当前的理论, 会是或超重氢的世代和氢核, 或3He 和中子。氢核的水平, 超重氢、中子和3He 实际上被观察在Fleischmann和Pons实验高级比当前的理论断言, 但很好在水平之下被期望由于热引起, 暗示这些反应无法解释它。如果剩余热由二氘原子的热的融合引起了入4He, 通常是极端罕见的反应, 4Helium 和伽马射线会引起。Miles 等报告, 4helium 的确引起了在数量一致以剩余热, 但研究未显示伽马射线的水平一致与剩余热能.流动核理论无法解释这些结果。一些实验导致热没有4Helium.评论笔记的研究员困惑巨大关心必须由氦气使用防止污秽自然地当前在大气空气里。虽然那里看来是嬗变的证据并且同位素转移在负极表面附近在一些实验, 冷聚变研究员一般考虑, 这些反常现象不是灰与相关主要剩余热作用。 2006 年, 核活动的实验性证据由对一台标准核轨道探测器的用途展示了称CR-39 。相片显示结疤探测器哪些与核活动是一致的。结疤的强度和样式看上去排除异常来源譬如背景辐射作为起因。研究第一次被提出了在科学会议在华盛顿特区, 在2006 年8月2 日。一篇详细的文章出版在新能量时间, 一本网上新闻杂志在2006 年11月10 日。

结果可再现性 The cold fusion researchers presenting their review document to the 2004 DoE panel on cold fusion said that the observation of excess heat has been reproduced, that it can be reproduced at will when the proper conditions are reproduced, and that many of the reasons for failure to reproduce it have been discovered. Yet, most reviewers stated that the effects are not repeatable.

In 1989, the DOE panel said: "Even a single short but valid cold fusion period would be revolutionary. As a result, it is difficult convincingly to resolve all cold fusion claims since, for example, any good experiment that fails to find cold fusion can be discounted as merely not working for unknown reasons.".

Nobel Laureate Julian Schwinger said that it is not uncommon to have difficulty in reproducing a new phenomenon that involves an ill-understood macroscopic control of a microscopic mechanism. As examples, he gave the onset of microchip studies, and the discovery of high-temperature superconductivity.

Babel Fish翻译

冷聚变研究员提出他们的回顾文件对2004 年母鹿盘区在冷聚变说, 剩余热的观察被再生产了, 它可能被再生产任意当适当的条件被再生产, 并且许多疏忽的原因再生产它被发现了。然而, 多数评论者阐明, 作用不是反复性的。 1989 年, 母鹿盘区说: "唯一短小但合法的冷聚变期间会是革命的。结果, 它令人信服地难解决所有冷聚变要求因为, 例如, 不发现冷聚变的任一个好实验像不仅仅工作可能被打折为未知的原因。"。诺贝尔得奖者朱利安Schwinger 说, 它不是不凡有困难在再生产介入一个微观机制的不适被了解的宏观控制的一种新现象。作为例子, 他给了微集成电路研究起始, 和在高温超导性的发现上。

理论

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Cold fusion's most significant problem in the eyes of many scientists is that current theories describing hot nuclear fusion can not explain how a cold fusion reaction could occur at relatively low temperatures, and that there is currently no accepted theory to explain cold fusion. The DOE panel says: "Nuclear fusion at room temperature, of the type discussed in this report, would be contrary to all understanding gained of nuclear reactions in the last half century; it would require the invention of an entirely new nuclear process". Current understanding of hot nuclear fusion shows that the following explanations are not adequate:

Nuclear reaction in general: The average density of deuterium in the palladium rod seems vastly insufficient to force pairs of nuclei close enough for fusion to occur according to mechanisms known to mainstream theories. The average distance is approximately 0.17 nanometers, a distance at which the attractive strong nuclear force cannot overcome the Coulomb repulsion. Actually, deuterium atoms are closer together in D2 gas molecules, which do not exhibit fusion. Absence of standard nuclear fusion products: if the excess heat were generated by the fusion of 2 deuterium atoms, the most probable outcome would be the generation of either a tritium atom and a proton, or a 3He and a neutron. The level of neutrons, tritium and 3He actually observed in Fleischmann-Pons experiment have been well below the level expected in view of the heat generated, implying that these fusion reactions cannot explain it. Fusion of deuterium into helium 4: if the excess heat were generated by the hot fusion of 2 deuterium atoms into 4He, gamma rays and helium would be generated. Again, insufficient levels of helium and gamma rays have been observed to explain the excess heat, and there is no known mechanism to explain how gamma rays could be converted into heat. Furthermore, the generation of 4He is always 107 lower than that of tritium and proton for even the lowest energy of the incident deuteron measured so far. In order for fusion to occur, the electrostatic force (Coulomb repulsion) that repels the positively charged nuclei must be overcome. Once the distance between the nuclei becomes comparable to one femtometre, the attractive strong interaction takes over and the fusion may occur. However, bringing the nuclei so close together requires an energy on the order of 10 MeV per nucleus, whereas the energies of chemical reactions are on the order of several electronvolts; it is hard to explain where the required energy would come from in room-temperature matter. Nuclei are so far apart in a metal lattice that it is hard to believe that the distant atoms could somehow facilitate the fusion reaction. Moreover, when fusion occurs, a large amount of energy is normally released as gamma rays or energetic protons or neutrons: there is no known mechanism that would release this energy as heat within the relatively small metal lattice. Robert F. Heeter said that the direct conversion of fusion energy into heat is not possible because of energy and momentum conservation and the laws of special relativity. Other critics say that until the observations are satisfactorily explained, there is no reason to believe that the effects have a nuclear rather than a non-nuclear origin.

The following mechanisms have been proposed to explain the discrepancies:

Bose-Einstein condensate-like: Theoretical work suggests that deuterons in shallow potential wells such as may be found in a palladium metal lattice may exhibit a cooperative behaviour similar to a Bose–Einstein condensate . This would allow nuclei to react despite the coulomb barrier, due to quantum tunneling and superposition. However, traditional Bose condensates only occur at much lower temperatures (close to absolute zero). Mossbauer effect-like: Theoretical work suggests that the energy of fusion can be transmitted to the entire metal lattice rather than a single atom, preventing the emission of gamma rays . It is interesting to compare this to the Mossbauer effect, in which the recoil energy of a nuclear transition is absorbed by a crystal lattice as a whole, rather than by a single atom. However, the energy involved must be less than that of a phonon, on the order of ?? keV, compared with 23 MeV in nuclear fusion. Multi-body interactions: The following reaction, if proven to exists, would not generate gamma rays: d+d+d+d -> 8Be -> 2 4He. Enhanced cross section; neutron formation; particle-wave transformation; resonance, tunneling and screening; exotic particles; formation of proton or deuteron clusters; formation of electron clusters. Deuterons embedded in palladium could settle at points and in channels within the metal's electron orbitals which substantially increase the likelihood of deuteron collisions. V.A. Filimonov and his colleagues in Russia have described this as a combination of deuteron cluster formation, shock wave fronts involving phase boundaries, and the directional propagation of solitons. (See also Zhang, W.-S. et al., 1999, 2000, and 2004.)

Babel Fish翻译

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冷聚变的最重大的问题在许多科学家眼里是, 当前的理论描述热的核裂变无法解释怎么冷聚变反应能发生在相对地低温, 并且有当前没有被接受的理论解释冷聚变。DOE panel认为: "核裂变在室温, 型被谈论在这个报告, 与所有理解会是相反的被获取核反应在后半局世纪; 它会要求一个整个地新核能过程的发明"。对热的核裂变的当前的理解表示, 以下解释不是充分的:

核反应总之: 平均密度氘在钯标尺似乎浩大地不足强迫对中坚力量足够紧密使融合发生根据机制对主流理论已知。平均距离是大约0.17 毫微米, 一个距离有吸引力的强的核部队无法克服库仑厌恶。实际上, 氘原子一起是接近的在D2 气体分子里, 不陈列融合。

缺乏标准核裂变产品: 如果剩余热由2 氘原子的融合引起了, 最可能的结果会是或超重氢原子的世代和氢核, 或3He 和中子。中子的水平, 超重氢和3He 实际上被观察在Fleischmann 脑桥实验是很好在水平之下被期望由于热引起, 暗示, 这些融合反应无法解释它。

氘的融合入氦气4: 如果剩余热由2 氘原子的热的融合引起了入4He, 伽马射线和氦气会引起。再, 氦气的不足的水平和伽马射线被观察解释剩余热, 并且没有知道的机制解释怎么伽马射线能被转换成热。

此外, 4He 的世代比那总是107 低超重氢和氢核为事件氘核的最低的能量到目前为止被测量。

为了融合发生, 静电力量(库仑厌恶) 排斥明确.紧张的中坚力量必须被克服。距离在中坚力量之间一次变得可比较与一femtometre, 有吸引力的强的互作用接管并且融合也许发生。但是, 带来中坚力量很接近一起要求能量大约10 兆伏特每中坚力量, 但是化学反应能量是大约几electronvolts; 它是困难解释何处必需的能量会来自在室温问题。中坚力量是到目前为止单独在金属格子, 它是困难相信遥远的原子能以某种方法促进融合反应。而且, 当融合发生, 很多能量通常被发布作为伽马射线或精力充沛的氢核或中子: 没有会发布这能量作为热在相对地小金属格子之内的知道的机制。罗伯特・F. Heeter 说, 融合能量直接转换入热不是可能的由于能量和动量保护和特别相对法律。其它评论家说直到观察令人满意地被解释, 没有理由相信作用有一个核而不是一个非核起源。以下机制提议解释差误:

Bose 艾因斯坦凝析油像: 理论工作建议, 氘核在浅潜在的井譬如也许被发现在钯金属格子也许显示合作行为相似与Bose 艾因斯坦凝析油。这会允许中坚力量起反应尽管库仑障碍, 由于量子挖洞和叠置。但是, 传统Bose 凝析油只发生在低温(紧挨□对零度) 。

Mossbauer 作用像: 理论工作建议, 融合能量可能被传达给整个金属格子而不是唯一原子, 防止伽马射线放射。它是有趣比较这与Mossbauer 作用, 核转折反冲能量由晶格吸收整体上, 而不是由唯一原子。但是, 介入的能量必须是决不那一声子, 大约?? keV, 比较23 兆伏特在核裂变。

多身体互作用: 以下反应, 如果证明存在, 不会引起伽马射线: d+d+d+d - 8Be - 2 4He 。改进的横剖面; 中子形成; 微粒挥动变革; 共鸣, 挖洞和筛选; 异乎寻常的微粒; 氢核或氘核群的形成; 电子群的形成。氘核被埋置在钯里能安定在点和在渠道里在极大地增加氘核碰撞可能的金属的电子轨道之内。V.A. Filimonov 和他的同事在俄国描述了这作为氘核群形成的组合, 冲击波前线介入阶段界限, 和solitons 的定向传播。(参见也张, W.-S. 等, 1999 年, 2000 年, 和2004 年。)