印度的科學史始于印度河流域文明史前人类活动,印度河流域文明早期的印度各州和帝国的史前人类活动。[1]

史前时期

编辑
 
手推轮车,印度河流域文明公元前3300-1300年)。收藏于新德里国立博物馆

到了公元前5500年,出现了一些类似于梅赫尔格尔巴基斯坦)的遗址,形成了后来的铜石并用时代文化基础。[2] 这些遗址的居民与近东中亚保持贸易关系。[2]

灌溉在公元前4500年左右在印度河流域文明中发展起来。[3]由于这一创新,印度河流域文明的规模和繁荣度不断增长,最终导致更多计划的定居点利用排水下水道[3]印度河流域文明开发了更复杂的灌溉和储水系统,包括公元前3000年在吉尔纳尔山英语Girnar的人工水库,以及公元前2600年的早期运河灌溉系统。[4] 公元前5-4千年时,该地区开始种植棉花[5]甘蔗最初来自热带南亚和东南亚。[6]不同的物种可能起源于不同的地方,竹蔗起源于印度,佛手瓜甘蔗来自新几内亚[6]

印度河流域的居民发展了一套标准化系统,使用砝码和度量衡,这一点从印度河流域遗址的发掘中可以看出。[7]这种技术标准化使测量设备能够有效地用于角度测量和建筑的测量。已知印度最早的船坞之一是在洛塔(公元前2400年),位于远离主要水流的地方,以避免淤泥的沉积。[8] 现代海洋学家认为,哈拉帕人必须拥有与潮汐有关的知识,才能在萨巴尔马蒂不断变化的河道上建造这样一个码头,以及堪称典范的水文海事工程。[8]

巴基斯坦巴拉科特英语Balakot科特·巴拉英语Kot Bala)(约公元前2500-1900年)的发掘中,发现了早期有冶金炉的证据。[9]这些炉子很可能是用来制造陶瓷物品的。[9]在巴拉科特还发掘了可追溯到该文明成熟阶段(约公元前2500-1900年)的[9]卡利班甘英语Kalibangan考古遗址进一步产生了锅状壁炉的证据,在一个遗址中既发现了地面上的,也发现了地下的。[10]在卡利班甘遗址还发现了带火的窑炉和窑洞室。[10]

 
位于毘舍离的阿育王石柱景观。阿育王的诏书(公元前272-231年)中的一条写道。“阿育王,在每个地方都建立了两种医院的医院和动物的医院。在没有治疗人和动物的草药的地方,他命令购买并在此处种植这些草药”。[11]

基于考古和文本证据,约瑟夫-E-施瓦茨伯格英语Joseph E. Schwartzberg(2008年)明尼苏达大学中的地理学专业荣誉教授提出印度制图的起源追溯到印度河谷文明(约公元前2500-1900年)。[12]吠陀时代(公元前2-1千年)以来,南亚就开始有规律地使用大型建筑计划、宇宙学图画和制图材料。[12]气候条件导致大多数证据被销毁,然而,一些挖掘出的测量仪器和测量棒已经产生了早期制图活动的令人信服的证据。[13] 施瓦茨贝格说:“关于现存地图的问题,进一步认为。虽然数量不多,但在数以千计的石器时代印度洞穴壁画中出现了一些类似地图的涂鸦;至少有一个复杂的中石器时代的图被认为是对宇宙的表述。”[14]

动物拉动的的考古证据可追溯到公元前2500年的印度河流域文明。[15]从哈拉帕遗址发现的最早的铜制可以追溯到公元前2300年。[16] 在整个印度恒河贾穆纳多布地区的考古发现中,都发现了剑,由青铜制成,但更常见的是制成。[16]


初期王国

编辑

中期王国(公元前230年-公元1206年)

编辑

中世纪末和现代初(1206-1858年)

编辑

殖民时代(1858-1947)

编辑

印度独立后(1947年至今)

编辑

参见

编辑

注释

编辑
  1. ^ Distribution of Acheulian sites in the Siwalik region. [2015-11-16]. (原始内容存档于2012-01-04). 
  2. ^ 2.0 2.1 Kenoyer 肯诺耶,230
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 Rodda & Ubertini, 279
  4. ^ Rodda & Ubertini, 161
  5. ^ Stein(格特鲁德·斯泰因), 47
  6. ^ 6.0 6.1 Sharpe 夏普 (1998年)
  7. ^ Baber 巴贝尔, 23页
  8. ^ 8.0 8.1 Rao 拉奥, 27–28
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 9.2 Dales, 3–22 [10]
  10. ^ 10.0 10.1 Baber, 20
  11. ^ Finger, 12
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 “我们现在认为,早在中石器时代,现在的印度就有某种形式的测绘,测绘的历史可以追溯到印度河文明(约公元前2500-1900年),至少从吠陀时代晚期(公元前一千年)开始,就不断有大型计划、宇宙地图和其他制图作品的建造”--约瑟夫-E-施瓦茨伯格,1301年。
  13. ^ Schwartzberg, 1301–1302
  14. ^ Schwartzberg, 1301
  15. ^ Lal (2001)
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 Allchin, 111–112

参考文献

编辑
  • Allan, J. & Stern, S. M. (2008年), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Allchin, F.R. (1979), South Asian Archaeology 1975: Papers from the Third International Conference of the Association of South Asian Archaeologists in Western Europe, Held in Paris edited by J.E.van Lohuizen-de Leeuw, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-05996-2.
  • Ahmad, S. (2005), "Rise and Decline of the Economy of Bengal", Asian Affairs, 27 (3): 5–26.
  • Arnold, David (2004), The New Cambridge History of India: Science, Technology and Medicine in Colonial India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-56319-4.
  • Baber, Zaheer (1996), The Science of Empire: Scientific Knowledge, Civilization, and Colonial Rule in India, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-7914-2919-9.
  • Balasubramaniam, R. (2002), Delhi Iron Pillar: New Insights, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, ISBN 81-7305-223-9.
  • BBC (2006), "Stone age man used dentist drill"页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
  • Bourbaki, Nicolas (1998), Elements of the History of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 3-540-64767-8.
  • Broadbent, T. A. A. (1968), "Reviewed work(s): The History of Ancient Indian Mathematics by C. N. Srinivasiengar", The Mathematical Gazette, 52 (381): 307–308.
  • Ceccarelli, Marco (2000), International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium, Springer, ISBN 0-7923-6372-8.
  • Choudhury, Sarojakanta. Educational philosophy of Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan. Deep & Deep Publications. 2006. ISBN 81-7629-766-6. OCLC 224913142. 
  • Chaudhuri, K. N. (1985), Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-28542-9.
  • Craddock, P.T. etc. (1983), Zinc production in medieval India, World Archaeology, 15 (2), Industrial Archaeology.
  • Cooke, Roger (2005), The History of Mathematics: A Brief Course, Wiley-Interscience, ISBN 0-471-44459-6.
  • Coppa, A. etc. (2006), "Early neolithic tradition of dentistry", Nature, 440: 755–756.
  • Dales, George (1974), "Excavations at Balakot, Pakistan, 1973", Journal of Field Archaeology, 1 (1–2): 3–22 [10].
  • Dhavalikar, M. K. (1975), "The beginning of coinage in India", World Archaeology, 6 (3): 330–338, Taylor & Francis.
  • Dikshitar, V. R. R. (1993), The Mauryan Polity, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1023-6.
  • Drakonoff, I. M. (1991), Early Antiquity, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-14465-8.
  • Fowler, David (1996), "Binomial Coefficient Function", The American Mathematical Monthly, 103 (1): 1–17.
  • Finger, Stanley (2001), Origins of Neuroscience: A History of Explorations Into Brain Function, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-514694-8.
  • Ghosh, Amalananda (1990), An Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 90-04-09262-5.
  • Hayashi, Takao (2005), "Indian Mathematics", The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism edited by Gavin Flood, pp. 360–375, Basil Blackwell, ISBN 978-1-4051-3251-0.
  • Hopkins, Donald R. (2002), The Greatest Killer: Smallpox in history, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-35168-8.
  • Ifrah, Georges (2000), A Universal History of Numbers: From Prehistory to Computers, Wiley, ISBN 0-471-39340-1.
  • Joseph, G. G. (2000), The Crest of the Peacock: The Non-European Roots of Mathematics, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-00659-8.
  • Kearns, Susannah C.J. & Nash, June E. (2008), leprosy, Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Kenoyer, J.M. (2006), "Neolithic Period", Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3) edited by Stanley Wolpert, Thomson Gale, ISBN 0-684-31352-9.
  • Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1996), Coming of Gunpowder to the Islamic World and North India: Spotlight on the Role of the Mongols, Journal of Asian History 30: 41–5 .
  • Kieschnick, John (2003), The Impact of Buddhism on Chinese Material Culture, Princeton University Press, ISBN 0-691-09676-7.
  • Kriger, Colleen E. & Connah, Graham (2006), Cloth in West African History, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0-7591-0422-0.
  • Lade, Arnie & Svoboda, Robert (2000), Chinese Medicine and Ayurveda, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-1472-X.
  • Lal, R. (2001), "Thematic evolution of ISTRO: transition in scientific issues and research focus from 1955 to 2000", Soil and Tillage Research, 61 (1–2): 3–12 [3].
  • Lee, Sunggyu (2006), Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8247-5563-4.
  • Livingston, Morna & Beach, Milo (2002), Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India, Princeton Architectural Press, ISBN 1-56898-324-7.
  • Lock, Stephen etc. (2001), The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-262950-6.
  • Lowe, Robson (1951), The Encyclopedia of British Empire Postage Stamps, 1661–1951 (vol. 3).
  • MSNBC (2008), "Dig uncovers ancient roots of dentistry"页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆).
  • Nair, C.G.R. (2004), "Science and technology in free India"页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), Government of Kerala—Kerala Call, Retrieved on 2006-07-09.
  • O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E.F. (1996), "Trigonometric functions", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive.
  • O'Connor, J. J. & Robertson, E. F. (2000), "Paramesvara"页面存档备份,存于互联网档案馆), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive.
  • Partington, James Riddick & Hall, Bert S. (1999), A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-5954-9.
  • Peabody, Norman (2003), Hindu Kingship and Polity in Precolonial India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-46548-6.
  • Peele, Stanton & Marcus Grant (1999), Alcohol and Pleasure: A Health Perspective, Psychology Press, ISBN 1-58391-015-8.
  • Piercey, W. Douglas & Scarborough, Harold (2008), hospital, Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Pingree, David (2003), "The logic of non-Western science: mathematical discoveries in medieval India", Daedalus, 132 (4): 45–54.
  • Raja, Rajendran (2006), "Scientists of Indian origin and their contributions", Encyclopedia of India (Vol 4.) edited by Stanley Wolpert, ISBN 0-684-31512-2.
  • Rao, S. R. (1985), Lothal, Archaeological Survey of India.
  • Rodda & Ubertini (2004), The Basis of Civilization—Water Science?, International Association of Hydrological Science, ISBN 1-901502-57-0.
  • Roy, Ranjan (1990), "Discovery of the Series Formula for   by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha", Mathematics Magazine, Mathematical Association of America, 63 (5): 291–306.
  • Sanchez & Canton (2006), Microcontroller Programming: The Microchip PIC, CRC Press, ISBN 0-8493-7189-9.
  • Savage-Smith, Emilie (1985), Islamicate Celestial Globes: Their History, Construction, and Use, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.
  • Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008), "Maps and Mapmaking in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 1301–1303, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
  • Seaman, Lewis Charles Bernard (1973), Victorian England: Aspects of English and Imperial History 1837–1901, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-04576-2.
  • Seidenberg, A. (1978), The origin of mathematics, Archive for the history of Exact Sciences, 18: 301–342.
  • Sellwood, D. G. J. (2008), coin, Encyclopædia Britannica.
  • Shaffer, Lynda N., "Southernization", Agricultural and Pastoral Societies in Ancient and Classical History edited by Michael Adas, pp. 308–324, Temple University Press, ISBN 1-56639-832-0.
  • Sharpe, Peter (1998), Sugar Cane: Past and Present, Southern Illinois University.
  • Siddiqui, I. H. (1986), "Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 29 (1): 52–77.
  • Singh, A. N. (1936), "On the Use of Series in Hindu Mathematics", Osiris, 1: 606–628.
  • Sircar, D.C.C. (1990), Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, ISBN 81-208-0690-5.
  • Smith, David E. (1958). History of Mathematics. Courier Dover Publications. ISBN 0-486-20430-8.
  • Srinivasan, S. & Griffiths, D., "South Indian wootz: evidence for high-carbon steel from crucibles from a newly identified site and preliminary comparisons with related finds", Material Issues in Art and Archaeology-V, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings Series Vol. 462.
  • Srinivasan, S. & Ranganathan, S., Wootz Steel: An Advanced Material of the Ancient World, Bangalore: Indian Institute of Science.
  • Srinivasan, S. (1994), "Wootz crucible steel: a newly discovered production site in South India", Institute of Archaeology, University College London, 5: 49–61.
  • Stein, Burton (1998), A History of India, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-20546-2.
  • Stillwell, John (2004), Mathematics and its History (2 edition), Springer, ISBN 0-387-95336-1.
  • Subbaarayappa, B.V. (1989), "Indian astronomy: an historical perspective", Cosmic Perspectives edited by Biswas etc., pp. 25–41, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-34354-2.
  • Teresi, Dick etc. (2002), Lost Discoveries: The Ancient Roots of Modern Science—from the Babylonians to the Maya, Simon & Schuster, ISBN 0-684-83718-8.
  • Tewari, Rakesh (2003), "The origins of Iron Working in India: New evidence from the central Ganga plain and the eastern Vindhyas", Antiquity, 77 (297): 536–544.
  • Thrusfield, Michael (2007), Veterinary Epidemiology, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 1-4051-5627-9.
  • Tripathi, V.N. (2008), "Astrology in India", Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures (2nd edition) edited by Helaine Selin, pp. 264–267, Springer, ISBN 978-1-4020-4559-2.
  • Wenk, Hans-Rudolf etc. (2003), Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-52958-1.
  • White, Lynn Townsend, Jr. (1960), "Tibet, India, and Malaya as Sources of Western Medieval Technology", The American Historical Review 65 (3): 522–526.
  • Whish, Charles (1835), Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland.