User:HMGiovanniV/工作-导
| 捷克斯洛伐克社会主义共和国 Československá socialistická republika | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1948年—1989年 | |||||||||
格言：“真理永不败”（Pravda vítězí） | |||||||||
 | |||||||||
| 首都 | 布拉格 | ||||||||
| 常用语言 | 捷克语、斯洛伐克语 | ||||||||
| 政府 | 社会主义共和国 | ||||||||
| 捷共总书记 | |||||||||
• 1948－1953 | 克莱门特·哥特瓦尔德 | ||||||||
• 1953－1968 | 安东宁·诺沃提尼 | ||||||||
• 1968－1969 | 亚历山大·杜布切克 | ||||||||
• 1969－1987 | 古斯塔夫·胡萨克 | ||||||||
• 1989 | 卡雷尔·乌尔班内克 | ||||||||
| 总统 | |||||||||
• 1948－1953 | 克莱门特·哥特瓦尔德 | ||||||||
• 1953－1957 | 安托宁·萨波托斯基 | ||||||||
• 1957－1968 | 安东宁·诺沃提尼 | ||||||||
• 1968－1975 | 卢德维克·斯沃博达 | ||||||||
• 1975－1989 | 古斯塔夫·胡萨克 | ||||||||
| 总理 | |||||||||
• 1948－1953（首） | 安托宁·萨波托斯基 | ||||||||
• 1988－1989（末） | 拉吉斯拉夫·阿达麦茨 | ||||||||
| 历史时期 | 冷战 | ||||||||
• 建立 | 1948年 | ||||||||
• 五月九日宪法 | 1948年5月9日 | ||||||||
• 改为联邦共和国 | 1989年3月 | ||||||||
| 面积 | |||||||||
| 1992年 | 127,900平方公里 | ||||||||
| 人口 | |||||||||
• 1992年 | 15600000 | ||||||||
| 货币 | 捷克斯洛伐克克朗 | ||||||||
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捷克斯洛伐克社会主义共和国（捷克语／斯洛伐克语：Československá socialistická republika，ČSSR）是捷克斯洛伐克自1960年至1989年期间的国号，由捷克斯洛伐克共产党（Komunistická strana Československa，KSČ）一党专政。该国通常被视作是苏联的一个卫星国。[1]
在社会主义共和国建立之前，捷共在苏联支持下已于1948年二月事件后取得了捷克斯洛伐克共和国的统治权，而在同年通过的《五月九日宪法》巩固了权力。其官方名称捷克斯洛伐克共和国（Československá republika）在1960年7月11日通过《捷克斯洛伐克社会主义共和国宪法》更变为捷克斯洛伐克社会主义共和国，这被看作是捷“社会主义的最后胜利”。捷共至1989年底因天鹅绒革命而失去政治上的主导地位，而社会主义共和国的体制也随之结束，改为联邦共和国。但由于民族主义势力的抬头，捷克和斯洛伐克之间的矛盾加剧，最终造成了1993年的天鹅绒分离，捷克斯洛伐克解体。
建立 编辑
| 東方集團 |
|---|
 |
Before the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1943, 爱德华·贝奈斯, the Czechoslovakian leader in exile, agreed to Soviet leader 斯大林's demands for unconditional agreement with Soviet foreign policy and the 贝尼斯法令.[2] While Beneš was not a Moscow cadre and several domestic reforms of other 東方集團 countries were not part of Beneš' plan, Stalin did not object because the plan included property expropriation and he was satisfied with the relative strength of communists in Czechoslovakia compared to other Eastern Bloc countries.[2]
In April 1945, the Third Republic was formed, led by a National Front of six parties. Because of the 捷克斯洛伐克共產黨's strength and Beneš' loyalty, unlike in other 東方集團 countries, the Kremlin did not require Bloc politics or "reliable" cadres in Czechoslovakian power positions, and the executive and legislative branches retained their traditional structures.[3] The Communists were the big winners in the 1946 elections, taking a total of 114 seats (they ran a separate list in Slovakia). Not only was this the only time a Communist party finished first in a free election anywhere in Europe during the Cold War era, but it was of only two free elections ever held in the Soviet bloc. 克莱门特·哥特瓦尔德, leader of the KSČ, became 捷克斯洛伐克总理.
However, thereafter, the Soviet Union was disappointed that the government failed to eliminate "bourgeois" influence in the army, expropriate industrialists and large landowners and eliminate parties outside of the "National Front".[4] Hope in Moscow was waning for a communist victory in the 1948 elections following a May 1947 Kremlin report concluded that "reactionary elements" praising western democracy had strengthened.[5]
Following Czechoslovakia's brief consideration of taking 马歇尔计划 funds,[4] and the subsequent scolding of communist parties by the 共产党和工人党情报局 at 什克拉爾斯卡-波倫巴 in September 1947, 鲁道夫·斯兰斯基 returned to 布拉格 with a plan for the final seizure of power, including the StB's elimination of party enemies and purging of dissidents.[6] Thereafter, Soviet Ambassador Valerian Zorin arranged the Czechoslovak coup d'état, followed by the occupation of non-Communist ministers' ministries, while the army was confined to barracks.[7]
On 25 February 1948, Beneš, fearful of civil war and Soviet intervention, capitulated and appointed a Communist-dominated government who was sworn in two days later. Although members of the other National Front parties still nominally figured, this was, for all intents and purposes, the start of out-and-out Communist rule in the country.[8][9][10] Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk, the only prominent minister still left who wasn't either a Communist or fellow traveler, was found dead two weeks later.[11] On 30 May, a single list of candidates from the National Front—now an organization dominated by the Communists—was elected to the National Assembly.
After passage of the Ninth-of-May Constitution on 9 June 1948, the country became a 人民共和国 until 1960. Although it was not a completely Communist document, it was close enough to the Soviet model that Beneš refused to sign it. He'd resigned a week before it was finally ratified, and died in September. The Ninth-of-May Constitution confirmed that the KSČ possessed absolute power, as other Communist parties had in the 東方集團. On 11 July 1960, the 1960 Constitution of Czechoslovakia was promulgated, changing the name of the country from the "Czechoslovak Republic" to the "Czechoslovak Socialist Republic".
History 编辑
- Main articles: History of Czechoslovakia, History of Czechoslovakia 1948–1989 and 1989–1992
With the exception of the 布拉格之春 in the late 1960s, Czechoslovakia was characterized by the absence of democracy and competitiveness with the Western European nations as part of the 冷战. In the religious sphere, 无神论 was officially promoted and taught. In 1969, the country became a 联邦制 of the 捷克社會主義共和國 and 斯洛伐克社会主义共和国.
Under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state were largely eliminated. A number of ministries, such as Education, were formally transferred to the two republics. However, the centralized political control by the Communist Party severely limited the effects of federalization.
The 1970s saw the rise of the 持不同政见者 movement in Czechoslovakia, represented (among others) by 瓦茨拉夫·哈维尔. The movement sought greater political participation and expression in the face of official disapproval, making itself felt by limits on work activities (up to a ban on any professional employment and refusal of higher education to the dissident's children), police harassment and even prison time.
In late 1989, the country became a democratic country again through the 天鵝絨革命. In 1992, the federal parliament decided to dissolve the country into the 捷克 and 斯洛伐克, as of 1 January 1993.
Geography 编辑
The Czechoslovak Socialist Republic was bounded on the West by 西德 and 東德, on the North by the 波兰人民共和国, on the East by the 苏联 and on the South by the 匈牙利人民共和国 and 奥地利.
Administrative divisions 编辑
Template:Communist Czechoslovakia
- 1960–1992: 10 regions [kraje], 布拉格, and (since 1970) 布拉迪斯拉发; divided in 109–114 districts [okresy]; the kraje were abolished temporarily in Slovakia in 1969–1970 and for many functions since 1991 in Czechoslovakia; in addition, the two republics Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic were established in 1969.
Politics 编辑
The 捷克斯洛伐克共產黨 (KSČ) led initially by First Secretary 克莱门特·哥特瓦尔德, held a monopoly on politics. Following the 1948 Tito-Stalin split and the 柏林封鎖, increased party purges occurred throughout the 東方集團, including a purge of 550,000 party members of the KSČ, which comprised 30% of its members.[12][13] Approximately 130,000 people were sent to prisons, labor camps and mines.[13]
The evolution of the resulting harshness of purges in Czechoslovakia, like much of its history after 1948, was a function of the late takeover by the communists, with many of the purges focusing on the sizable numbers of party members with prior memberships in other parties.[14] The purges accompanied various 摆样子公审, including those of 鲁道夫·斯兰斯基, Vladimír Clementis, Ladislav Novomeský and 古斯塔夫·胡萨克 (Clementis was later executed).[12] Slánský and eleven others were convicted together of being "Trotskyist-zionist-titoist-bourgeois-nationalist traitors" in one series of 摆样子公审, after which they were executed and their ashes were mixed with material being used to fill roads on the outskirts of Prague.[12]
安东宁·诺沃提尼 served as First Secretary of the KSČ from 1953 to 1968. 古斯塔夫·胡萨克 was elected first secretary of KSČ in 1969 (changed to general secretary in 1971) and president of Czechoslovakia in 1975. Other parties and organizations existed but functioned in subordinate roles to KSČ. All political parties, as well as numerous mass organizations, were grouped under the umbrella of National Front of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. Human rights activists and religious activists were severely repressed.
In terms of political positions, the KSČ maintained the cadre and the 職官名錄制度 lists, with the latter containing every post in each country that was important to the smooth application of party policy, including military posts, administrative positions, directors of local enterprises, social organization administrators, newspapers, etc.[15] The KSČ's nomenklatura lists were thought to contain 100,000 post listings.[15] The names of those that the party considered to be trustworthy enough to secure a nomenklatura post were compiled on the cadre list.[15]
Economy 编辑
The Czechoslovakian economy was a centrally planned 計劃經濟 with links controlled by the communist party, similar to the 苏联. It had a large metallurgical industry, but was dependent on imports for iron and nonferrous ores. Like the rest of the Eastern Bloc, producer goods were favored over consumer goods, causing consumer goods to be lacking in quantity and quality. This resulted in shortage economies.[16][17] Economic growth rates lagged well behind Czechoslovakia's western European counterparts.[18] Investments made in industry did not yield the results expected, and consumption of energy and raw materials was excessive. Czechoslovak leaders themselves decried the economy's failure to modernize with sufficient speed.
- Industry: Extractive and manufacturing industries dominated sector. Major branches included machinery, chemicals, food processing, metallurgy, and textiles. Industry was wasteful of energy, materials, and labor and slow to upgrade technology, but was a source of high-quality machinery and arms for other communist countries.
- Agriculture: Minor sector but supplied bulk of food needs. Dependent on large imports of grains (mainly for livestock feed) in years of adverse weather. Meat production constrained by shortage of feed, but high per capita consumption of meat.
- Foreign Trade: Exports estimated at US$17.8 billion in 1985, of which 55% was machinery, 14% fuels and materials, and 16% manufactured consumer goods. Imports at estimated US$17.9 billion in 1985, of which 41% was fuels and materials, 33% machinery, and 12% agricultural and forestry products. In 1986, about 80% of foreign trade was with communist countries.
- Exchange Rate: Official, or commercial, rate Kcs 5.4 per US$1 in 1987; tourist, or noncommercial, rate Kcs 10.5 per US$1. Neither rate reflected purchasing power. The exchange rate on the 黑市 was around Kcs 30 per US$1, and this rate became the official one once the currency became convertible in the early 1990s.
- Fiscal Year: Calendar year.
- Fiscal Policy: State almost exclusive owner of means of production. Revenues from state enterprises primary source of revenues followed by 营业税. Large budget expenditures on social programs, subsidies, and investments. Budget usually balanced or small surplus.
Resource base 编辑
After World War II, the country was short on energy, relying on imported crude oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union, domestic brown coal, and nuclear and hydroelectric energy. Energy constraints were a major factor in 1980s.
Society and social groups 编辑
Emigration 编辑
Historically, emigration has always been an option for Czechs and Slovaks dissatisfied with the situation at home. Each wave of emigration had its own impetus. In the 19th century, the reasons were primarily economic. In the 20th century, emigration was largely prompted by political turmoil, though economic factors still played a role. The first major wave of emigration in the 20th century came after the communists came to power, and the next wave began after the 布拉格之春 was suppressed.
In the 1980s, the most popular way to emigrate to the West was to travel to 南斯拉夫 by automobile and, once there, take a detour to Greece, Austria, or 意大利 (Yugoslav border restrictions were not as strict as those of the Warsaw Pact nations). Only a small percentage of those who applied to emigrate legally could do so. The exact details of the process have never been published, but a reasonably clear picture can be gleaned from those who succeeded. It was a lengthy and costly process. Those applicants allowed to even consider emigration were required to repay the state for their education, depending on their level of education and salary, at a rate ranging from 4,000 Kčs to 10,000 Kčs. (The average yearly wage was about Kčs33,600 in 1984.) The applicant was likely to lose his job and be socially 陶片放逐制.
Technically, at least, such emigres would be allowed to return for visits. Those who had been politically active, such as Charter 77 signatories, found it somewhat easier to emigrate, but they were not allowed to return and reportedly had to pay the state exorbitant fees—Kčs23,000 to as much as Kčs80,000—if they had graduated from a university. Old-age pensioners had no problem visiting or emigrating to the West. The reasons for this were purely economic; if they decided to stay in the West, the state no longer had to pay their pension.[來源請求]
There is (and always was) a huge discrepancy between "official statistics" (i.e. numbers issued by the 共产主义国家) on how many people emigrated from 捷克斯洛伐克 and "illegal 难民" statistics published by the 联合国难民署 (UNHCR). This discrepancy was not specific to Czechoslovakia only; a similar situation applied for all 東方集團 countries, as their totalitarian regimes preferred to downplay and suppress real numbers.[來源請求]
Official statistics for the early 1980s show that, on the average, 3,500 people emigrated legally each year. From 1965 to 1983, a total of 33,000 people emigrated legally. This figure undoubtedly included a large number of ethnic Germans resettled in East Germany. The largest émigré communities are located in 奥地利, 西德, the United States, Canada, and Australia.
Unofficial figures are much larger. It is estimated that between 1948 and 1989 close to 1 million people left communist 捷克斯洛伐克. The largest exoduses occurred following the communist takeover in February 1948 and following the Warsaw pact occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1968, with around 200 000 people leaving in each wave.[來源請求] A very similar 200 000-strong refugee wave left Hungary in 1956 after their failed anti-communist revolution. In the fifties, when the regime was at its harshest and the "铁幕" was close to impenetrable, emigration was very low. It increased between 1969 and 1989, when close to 40 000 people were leaving the country each year. All of them were sentenced to imprisonment in absentia by the communist regime for leaving the country illegally.
Religion 编辑
In 1991: Roman Catholics 46.4%, Evangelic Lutheran 5.3%, Atheist 29.5%, n/a 16.7%, but there were huge differences between the 2 constituent republics – see 捷克 and 斯洛伐克
Health, social welfare and housing 编辑
After World War II, free health care was available to all citizens. National health planning emphasized preventive medicine; factory and local health-care centers supplemented hospitals and other inpatient institutions. Substantial improvement in rural health care in 1960s and 1970s.
Mass media 编辑
The mass media in Czechoslovakia was controlled by the 捷克斯洛伐克共產黨 (KSČ). Private ownership of any publication or agency of the mass media was generally forbidden, although churches and other organizations published small periodicals and newspapers. Even with this informational monopoly in the hands of organizations under KSČ control, all publications were reviewed by the government's Office for Press and Information.
Heads of state and government 编辑
International agreements and membership 编辑
Active participant in Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (经济互助委员会), 华沙条约组织, UN and its specialized agencies, and 不结盟运动; signatory of 赫尔辛基协议
See also 编辑
- Communist Czechoslovakia's Government structure · Economy · Resource base · Society · Health and social welfare · Mass media
- Czechoslovakia's Ethnic minorities · Education · Religion · Transportation
- 布拉格之春
External links 编辑
- RFE/RL Czechoslovak Unit, Open Society Archives, Budapest.
Timeline 编辑
| 捷克斯洛伐克国家历史年表 | ||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1918年前 | 1918年–1938年 | 1938年–1945年 | 1945年–1948年 | 1948年–1989年 | 1989年–1992年 | 1993年– | ||||
| 波希米亚 摩拉維亞 捷克西里西亞 |
奥地利 帝国 |
第一共和国a | 蘇台德地區b | 第三共和国 | 捷克斯洛伐克共和国e 1948–1960 |
捷克斯洛伐克社会主义共和国f 1960–1990 |
捷克和斯洛伐克 联邦共和国 1990–1992 |
捷克 共和国 | ||
| 捷克斯洛伐克第二共和國 1938–1939 |
波希米亚和摩拉维亚 保护国 1939–1945 | |||||||||
| 斯洛伐克 | 匈牙利 王国 |
斯洛伐克共和国 1939–1945 |
斯洛伐克 共和国 | |||||||
| 南斯洛伐克及喀尔巴阡乌克兰d | ||||||||||
| 喀尔巴阡罗塞尼亚 | 外喀爾巴阡州g 1944 / 1946–1991 |
外喀爾巴阡州h 1991– | ||||||||
| 奥匈帝国 | 捷克斯洛伐克流亡政府 | |||||||||
|
a 捷克斯洛伐克共和国；国界与政府由1920年宪法奠定。 |
e 捷克斯洛伐克共和国；二月事件后在五月九日宪法之下称为“人民民主国家”（未更改国名）。 | |||||||||
Notes 编辑
- ^ Rao, B. V. (2006), History of Modern Europe Ad 1789-2002: A.D. 1789-2002, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
- ^ 2.0 2.1 Wettig 2008，第45頁
- ^ Wettig 2008，第86頁
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Wettig 2008，第152頁 引证错误：带有name属性“wettig152”的
<ref>标签用不同内容定义了多次 - ^ Wettig 2008，第110頁
- ^ Grogin 2001，第134頁
- ^ Grenville 2005，第371頁
- ^ Grenville 2005，第370–371頁
- ^ Grogin 2001，第134–135頁
- ^ Saxonberg 2001，第15頁
- ^ Grogin 2001，第135頁
- ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Crampton 1997，第262頁
- ^ 13.0 13.1 Bideleux & Jeffries 2007，第477頁
- ^ Crampton 1997，第270頁
- ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Crampton 1997，第249頁
- ^ Dale 2005，第85頁
- ^ Bideleux & Jeffries 2007，第474頁
- ^ Hardt & Kaufman 1995，第17頁
References 编辑
- Bideleux, Robert; Jeffries, Ian, A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change, Routledge, 2007, ISBN 0-415-36626-7
- Black, Cyril E.; English, Robert D.; Helmreich, Jonathan E.; McAdams, James A., Rebirth: A Political History of Europe since World War II, Westview Press, 2000, ISBN 0-8133-3664-3
- Crampton, R. J., Eastern Europe in the twentieth century and after, Routledge, 1997, ISBN 0-415-16422-2
- Dale, Gareth, Popular Protest in East Germany, 1945–1989: Judgements on the Street, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 978-0-7146-5408-9
- Frucht, Richard C., Encyclopedia of Eastern Europe: From the Congress of Vienna to the Fall of Communism, Taylor & Francis Group, 2003, ISBN 0-203-80109-1
- Grenville, John Ashley Soames, A History of the World from the 20th to the 21st Century, Routledge, 2005, ISBN 0-415-28954-8
- Grenville, John Ashley Soames; Wasserstein, Bernard, The Major International Treaties of the Twentieth Century: A History and Guide with Texts, Taylor & Francis, 2001, ISBN 0-415-23798-X
- Grogin, Robert C., Natural Enemies: The United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917–1991, Lexington Books, 2001, ISBN 0-7391-0160-9
- Hardt, John Pearce; Kaufman, Richard F., East-Central European Economies in Transition, M.E. Sharpe, 1995, ISBN 1-56324-612-0
- Saxonberg, Steven, The Fall: A Comparative Study of the End of Communism in Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary and Poland, Routledge, 2001, ISBN 90-5823-097-X
- Wettig, Gerhard, Stalin and the Cold War in Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008, ISBN 0-7425-5542-9
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