工作台2

阿斯图里亚斯王国 Reino de Asturias （西班牙文） Reinu d'Asturies （阿斯图里亚斯文） Regnum Asturorum （拉丁文）
718年—924年
国徽
格言：Hoc Signo Tuetur Pius, Hoc Signo Vincitur Inimicus （中文：与此标志，汝必捍卫虔诚；与此标志，汝必战胜敌人。）
首都	坎加斯-德奥尼斯、圣马汀-德雷奥雷利奥、兰格雷奥、普拉维亚、奥维耶多
常用语言	拉丁语、通俗拉丁语 （阿斯图里亚斯-莱昂语、加利西亚-葡萄牙语与卡斯提尔语）、巴斯克语、少数布立吞亚支及哥德语使用者
宗教	基督教
政府	君主制
国王
• 718年-737年	佩拉约
• 910年-925年	弗鲁埃拉二世
历史
• 建立	718年
• 科瓦东加战役	718年或722年
• 君主世袭	842年
• 分裂	910年
• 终结	924年
前身 继承 西哥特王国 莱昂王国
今属于	西班牙 葡萄牙

阿斯图里亚斯王国（拉丁语：Regnum Asturorum）是一个位于伊比利半岛，由佩拉约国王领导的西哥特贵族于718年建立的王国。也是在伊斯兰征服西斯班尼亚及西哥德王国灭亡之后，第一个建立的基督教政治实体。722年（一说718年），佩拉约在科瓦东加战役击败奥玛雅王朝，通常被视为收复失地运动的起点。王国存续到925年，直到弗鲁埃拉二世成为雷昂国王。

历史

原始的背景

阿斯图里亚斯王国发源于坎塔布里亚山脉中西部，加利西亚行省的一部分，尤其是欧罗巴之峰（Picos de Europa）及阿斯图里亚斯的中心地区。王国前几十年主要的政治发展及军事事件都发生在这些地区。根据斯特拉波、卡西乌斯·狄奥及其他希腊罗马地理学家的描述，阿斯图里亚斯地区在基督教时期开始时已有数个族群定居，其中几个主要的有：

• 在坎塔布里族群中的瓦迪尼恩塞斯人（Vadinienses），居住在欧罗巴之峰地区，在1世纪期间他们的活动范围逐渐的向南扩张。
• 欧恒诺梅希人（Orgenomesci），沿著阿斯图里亚斯的东部海岸居住。
• 来自阿斯图雷斯族群的萨耶里尼人（Saelini），他们的聚落沿著塞利亚河河谷扩张。
• 卢贡内斯人（Luggones），他们拥有自己的首都卢库斯-阿斯图卢姆（Lucus Asturum），并且他们的领域在塞利亚河及纳隆河（Nalón）之间扩展。
• 阿斯图雷斯人（狭义的范围），位于现今的皮隆尼亚市区与坎加斯-德纳尔塞亚之间。
• 帕耶西希人（Paesici），沿著阿斯图里亚斯的西部海岸居住，在纳维亚河口（Navia）及现今的城市希洪之间。

索米耶多的l.lagu del Val.le的图片。显示出典型的阿斯图里亚斯风格房舍，早在阿斯图雷斯的时期就已经在使用。

古典地理学家对于上述族群的种族描述持有不同的看法：托勒密认为阿斯图雷斯人从现代阿斯图里亚斯的中部地区向外扩张，直到纳维亚河及塞利亚河之间，他将塞利亚河修正为阿斯图雷斯与坎塔布里的边界。然而，其他的地理学者将阿斯图雷斯与坎塔布里的边界标示在更东边的地方：胡立乌斯·殴诺利乌斯在他的著作地理志（Cosmographia）中提到埃布罗河的涌泉群应该在阿斯图雷斯的范围之内。无论如何，坎塔布里亚山脉内的种族界线在后来也没有那么的明显，前罗马时期北部伊比利社会之间区别分明的氏族部落，在罗马人到来之后全部被迫进入相似的政治行政体制之下。

这种情势到了罗马帝国晚期与中世纪早期开始发生转变，阿斯图里亚斯的本体开始逐渐发展出来：西哥德或苏维汇贵族一个世纪的战争使得坎塔布里亚地区的民族身分更加突显。在拉卡利萨的卡斯特罗（castro of La Carisa，雷纳：Lena的市治）的数个考古挖掘遗址，发现用来防止阿斯图里亚斯中心山谷受到来自梅塞塔高原（Meseta）的入侵者从帕哈雷斯（Pajares）隘口进犯的防线遗迹：这些防御工事的结构显示出数个阿斯图里亚斯聚落之间高度的组织及合作能力，来防御来自南方的入侵者。碳-14测定的结果发现城墙的建造年份大约在675年到725年这个时期之间，正是两支远征军队侵略阿斯图里亚斯的时候：一支是西哥德国王万巴领导的，另一支则是穆斯林总督穆萨·本·努萨伊尔所领导的，在伊斯兰征服伊比利亚期间派遣军队越过他们的领土。

阿斯图里亚斯本体的逐渐形成，导致了阿斯图里亚斯王国在佩拉约的加冕以及他在科瓦东加打败穆斯林军队的胜利之后被创立了。阿尔贝丹西亚编年史（Chronica Albeldensia）描述了科瓦东加战役的经过，提到“上帝的旨意带来了阿斯图里亚斯国王”（Divine providence brings forth the King of Asturias）。

伊斯兰的占领与阿斯图里亚斯的反攻

佩拉约的纪念碑，矗立于科瓦东加。

王国是由西哥德贵族佩拉约（拉丁语：Pelagius）所建立的，在瓜达雷特战役之后，他回到他的国家，就如同类似德亚例子的哥德传统一般，他被其他阿斯图里亚斯的贵族领导者推举并建立阿斯图里亚斯王国。然而，佩拉约的王国最初比一支现代的游击队组织还要微小。

在伊斯兰征服伊比利半岛的过程中，主要城市及行政中心皆落入穆斯林军队的手中。穆斯林控制了中部及南部地区，包含瓜达克伊维尔（Guadalquivir）及埃布罗河谷，新到者发现了些许问题，他们使用基本上源自于罗马的现存西哥德行政组织。然而，北方山区的城市（例如西西亚Gigia）几乎都已经不存在了，而投降乡镇的接收只能一座山谷接著一座山谷的来进行。穆斯林军队时常需要借由押解人质来确保新占领地区的和平。

在塔里克（Tarik）的第一次侵略之后，于711年他抵达托雷多（Toledo），叶门出生的伊非利其亚总督穆萨·本·努萨伊尔，几年后横越直布罗陀海峡，并展开大规模的征服行动，攻陷了梅里达（Mérida）、托雷多、萨拉哥萨（Zaragoza）及莱里达（Lerida），以及其他城市。在他最后阶段的军事行动期间，他已抵达半岛的西北端，并增加对卢戈与希洪地区的控制。在希洪他派遣了一支由姆努萨管理的小分遣队，他的任务是整合穆斯林的势力来控制阿斯图里亚斯。一些阿斯图里亚斯贵族成为区域归降的担保人，而有些人则争论佩拉约也是其中的一位，虽然他的血源不明，却仍必须当投降的人质从阿斯图里亚斯前往哥多华。传说指出他的妹妹被一个柏柏（Berber）领导人追求，并且试图建立一个婚姻联盟。之后，姆努萨尝试在庇里牛斯山脉的另外一座山做同样的事，而他却背叛他的哥多华阿拉伯长官。柏柏人皈依为伊斯兰教徒仅仅是一个世代前的事，并且视效忠阿拉伯人及叙利亚人为第二顺位。

但是，在罗腾西斯史书（Rotensian Chronicle，又称雷昂的阿方索三世史书，其中佩拉约被认为是西哥德托雷多政权的国王继承人，而目标便是政治的正统）及阿-马加里（Al-Maqqari，一位16世纪的摩洛哥历史学家，去世于埃及开罗，相隔8世纪后他使用这份资料并且重新抄写一份，使其成为具有争议性的历史文件）所提到的，佩拉约在阿·胡尔总督（Al Hurr，717年-718年在职）任期内逃离哥多华，并且回到阿斯图里亚斯兴起叛乱对抗希洪的穆斯林政府。然而佩拉约的身份依然是一个开放的课题，并且这只是其中一种说法。阿斯图雷斯领导者的血统受到历史学者的争论，当时姆努萨派遣由阿-卡马（Al-Qama）带领的军队前往佩拉约的家乡布雷斯（Bres，在皮罗尼亚Piloña市内）。在收到穆斯林及抵达的消息后，佩拉约跟他的同伴匆忙的跨越皮罗尼亚河并且朝著易于防守的奥赛瓦（Auseva）山狭谷前进，并且在科瓦东加的一个洞窟内藏身。穆斯林军队尝试围攻，却受到天候和在山谷要冲深处暴露位置两个因素而被迫放弃，为了持续搜寻并摧毁其他叛乱者的反抗行为，穆斯林军队声称已经从至高点的通道离开前往南方。使得当地人能够袭击分散的穆斯林军队，而成功歼灭穆斯林。剩下的仅存者持续向南走到莱昂，很可能抛下了阿斯图里亚斯沿海区域暴露的与守备薄弱的守军不顾。对于这场战役最常见的公认说法（基督徒史书描述为史诗，但是穆斯林文件仅称之为小冲突）为穆斯林的分遣队在悬崖处受到攻击，之后撤退透过山谷前往今日的希洪，但是在撤退的途中受到随军的攻击而几乎全灭。

这场胜利相当的微小，只有少数的柏柏士兵牵涉其中，然而导致佩拉约的威望大幅增加，并且激起阿斯图里亚斯与加利西亚其他贵族大规模的叛乱，他们立刻重整于佩拉约身边，推举他为国王或军事首领。

在佩拉约的领导下，对柏柏人的攻击逐渐增加。姆努萨在敌意日益增加的地区感到孤立无援，决定放弃希洪并且通过梅萨隘口（Mesa）前往梅塞塔高原。然而他在奥拉利耶斯（Olalíes，位于现今的格拉多Grado地区）被阿斯图雷斯人拦截并且杀害。在佩拉约驱逐摩尔人于阿斯图里亚斯的东部山谷后，他攻击了伊比利半岛西北部的主要城市莱昂并且确保山区通道的安全，防止该地区受到摩尔人的攻击。佩拉约持续攻击还留在阿斯图里亚斯-加利西亚山区的柏柏人直到他们撤退，但更多的是转移驻军来进行更大的暴乱面对来自哥多华（Cordoba）控制的阿拉伯人。之后他将他的女儿埃尔梅欣达（Ermesinda）嫁给仍然独立的西哥德伯国坎塔布里亚的贵族领导者坎塔布里亚的佩德罗（Peter of Cantabria）的儿子阿方索（Alfonso）。佩拉约的儿子法维拉（Favila）则娶弗萝伊莉乌巴（Froiliuba）为妻。

最近的考古挖掘已经发现可追溯至7世纪末8世纪初位于欧蒙山（Mount Homon）及拉-卡里萨（La Carisa）的数个要塞。这些柏柏要塞包含瞭望塔及接近二公尺深的护城壕，可能有将近数百人参与了要塞的建造及防守。如此多人的参与需要一个高度的组织性及良好的领导能力，或许就是佩拉约他自己。因此，学者认为这些防线的建立可能就是要防止摩尔人再次通过梅萨及帕哈雷斯隘口进入阿斯图里亚斯。

在佩拉约使摩尔人分崩离析的科瓦东加之战胜利之后，一个小领域的独立实体在阿斯图里亚斯山区成立，这将是阿斯图里亚斯王国的起源。佩拉约的领导权无法跟西哥德的国王相比。第一个阿斯图里亚斯国王先是自称“princeps”（第一公民），之后再称“rex”（国王），然而第二个头衔直到阿方索二世的时期才稳定成立。“第一公民”这个头衔曾经被西班牙北部本土的居民使用，并且通常出现在加利西亚及坎塔布里亚的碑文中，如这些例句：“ 尼塞尔，洛斯-阿尔比欧内斯（los Albiones）的第一公民” （在科阿尼亚Coaña行政区发现的碑文），及“坎塔布里亚第一公民”（ 刻于雷昂之希斯提耶纳Cistierna行政区的一块墓碑之上）。事实上，与西哥德人皆相同反抗罗马人，并且不愿意受到奥玛雅哈里发支配的坎塔布里亚海岸人民，这些人民集结出的领导权，才是阿斯图里亚斯王国后来的起源。来自南方、自安达卢斯逃离出来的移民，带给阿斯图里亚斯王国哥德式文化的影响力。然而到了9世纪初，阿方索二世将西哥德视为西班牙沦陷的肇因。基于此时期知识的史书，全部成书于尚有庞大哥德意识形态影响的阿方索三世统治时期，有赛巴斯提安内希安史书（Crónica Sebastianense）、阿尔贝登希安史书（Crónica Albeldense）、及罗藤希安史书（Crónica Rotense）。

阿斯图里亚斯首个十年对王国内不同区域的统治仍然是松散的，因此需要不断透过与伊比利半岛北部的其他豪族联姻来强化统治。所以佩拉约将女儿埃尔梅辛达（Ermesinda）嫁给坎塔布里亚伯爵佩德罗的儿子阿方索。阿方索有儿子弗鲁埃拉及女儿阿度辛达（Adosinda），弗鲁埃拉娶了一个阿拉瓦（Alava）的巴斯克公主姆妮亚（Munia），而阿度辛达则嫁给一个来自普拉维亚（Pravia）之弗拉维欧纳维亚（Flavionavia）地区的地方豪强希罗（Silo）。

737年佩拉约去世后，他的儿子法维拉（或称“法菲拉”）被推选为国王。根据史书，法维拉在一次当代贵族常见的试胆狩猎行动中，遭到一只熊意外杀害。但并没有其他为人所知的意外在该项运动长久的历史中出现，并且这起事件可疑地与罗马第一任国王罗慕路斯的传说相似，因为突如其来的风暴而发生。法维拉身亡的立即后果便是阿斯图里亚斯的王权转到他的妹夫，相邻的独立实体统治者，与法维拉的妹妹联姻的阿方索手中。女性的继承权利及关系在当时仍然受到尊重，并且后来的实例显示丈夫的摄政权甚至王权是允许的。

佩拉约在阿斯图里亚斯创立了一个存在超过数十年的王朝，并且逐渐扩张王国的边界，直到约775年全伊比利半岛的北部都属于王国的领土。阿方索二世791年到842年的统治期间，王国达成更远的向南扩张，几乎远到葡萄牙的里斯本。

814年的阿斯图里亚斯王国以及欧洲同时期的其他国家。

初期的扩张

法维拉的王位由阿方索一世继承，他之所以能够继承阿斯图里亚斯的王位要多亏于他与佩拉约的女儿埃尔梅辛达的婚姻。阿尔贝尔登西安史书描述了阿方索如何在科瓦东加战役后的某一时进入王国娶了埃尔梅辛达的情形。法维拉的去世使得阿方索获得王位成为可能，同时使他的家族坎塔布里亚家族的势力上升成为阿斯图里亚斯王国最强大的家族。最初只有阿方索迁往坎加斯的宫殿，但在梅塞塔高原及埃布罗河中部河谷（坎塔布里亚公国的主要据点如阿马亚Amaya、特利西欧Tricio及坎塔布里亚市的所在地）的人口持续减少后，佩德罗公爵的后人（即阿方索）从坎塔布里亚地区收回了拉里奥哈，并且最后掌控了阿斯图里亚斯王国的命运。

阿方索开启了阿斯图里亚斯这个从欧罗巴山兴起的小型基督教王国的领土扩张，透过连续的侵略杜罗河河谷将势力向西朝加利西亚以及向南扩张，占领城市及村落并且将这些城镇的居民迁往更安全的北方区域。此举最终导致梅塞塔高原战略性的人口减少，使得杜罗沙漠的产生，为之后的摩尔人攻击提供保护抵档的作用。

这起人口减少事件的真实性，受到西班牙历史学家克劳迪欧·桑切斯-阿尔波诺斯的拥护，然而在今日是受到质疑的，至少关于它的规模。 有两个反方的主要争议点。第一，较小的地名被保存在数个行政区中。第二，在坎塔布里亚地区及梅塞塔高原的居民存在著生物及文化上的差异。真相是在8世纪的上半叶发生了农村的成长而造成城市生活形态的放弃，同时放牧民的小群体人口开始产生组织性。数个因素可以解释这个过程的发生：罗马帝国晚期即存在的基于奴隶的生产制度的决定性崩溃；该地区不断传播的流行病；以及安达卢斯的柏柏人军团在面对740年到741年的叛乱后放弃该地区。以上种种因素使得一个人口稀疏、缺少组织的地区得以出现，并且将阿斯图里亚斯王国与来自摩尔人的攻击隔离开来，还使得阿斯图里亚斯王国能够逐渐的增强。

阿方索一世及弗鲁埃拉在杜罗河河谷进行的人口减少事件可能与前罗马时期阿斯图雷斯人对同一区域进行的袭击事件差异不大。阿斯图里亚斯最初的扩张主要是从坎塔布里亚地区（从加利西亚到比斯开）开始进行的，而一直要到奥多尼奥一世及阿方索三世的统治期间，王国才能有效控制位于坎塔布连山脉南部的领土。

弗鲁埃拉一世是阿方索一世的儿子，继续巩固并且扩张他父亲的领土。他最后遭到与坎塔布里亚家族有关的几位贵族成员暗杀。

社会及政治的转变

Written sources are concise concerning the reigns of Aurelio, Silo, Mauregato and Bermudo I. Generally this period, with a duration of twenty-three years (768-791), has been considered as a long stage of obscurity and retreat of the kingdom of Asturias. This vision, defended by some historians, who even named this phase of the history of the Asturian kingdom as that of the "lazy kings," originated because it appears that in that moment there were no important military actions against Al-Andalus. However, during those years there were relevant and decisive internal transformations in the Asturian kingdom. They all prepared and provided a foundation, in all respects, for the strengthening and the expansion of Asturias.

First, the first internal rebellion, led by Mauregato (783-788), occurred during those years. The rebellion removed Alphonse II from the throne (although he became king again later, from 791 to 842), and initiated a series of rebellions whose principal leaders were members of ascending aristocratic palace groups and landowners who, based on the growing economic development of the area, tried to displace from power of the reigning family of Don Pelayo. The important rebellions of Nepociano, Aldroito and Piniolo, during the reign of Ramiro I (842-50), are part of this process of economic, social, political and cultural transformation of the Asturian kingdom that occurred during the eighth and ninth centuries.

Second, neighboring rebellions by Basques and Galicians failed, aborted by Asturian kings. These rebellions, in turn, took advantage of the internal rebellions of the central and Eastern part of Asturias, and, on occasions, provided help to one or another contender of the Asturian aristocracy: refuge to Alphonse II in lands of Alava, after his flight; the support to Nepociano's rebellion in some Asturian areas or the adherence of Galicians to the cause of Ramiro I.

Finally, other evidence suggests important internal transformations of the Asturian kingdom during this time. Rebellions of freedmen (serbi, servilis orico and libertini, according to the Chronicles) occurred during the reign of Aurelio I. The property relationship between master and slave broke down progressively. This fact, together with the growing role of the individual and the restricted family in detriment of the role that until that time had fulfilled the extended family, is another indication that a new society was emerging in Asturias at the end of the eighth and beginning of the ninth centuries.

Fruela I (757-68) is succeeded by Aurelio (768-74), Peter of Cantabria's grandson, who will establish the court in lands of what is today the district of San Martin del Rey Aurelio, which previously belonged to Langreo, between the years of his reign. Silo (774-83) succeeded Aurelio after his death, and transfers the court to Pravia. Silo was married to Adosinda, one of the daughters of Alphonse I (and therefore, Pelayo's granddaughter).

Alphonse II was elected king after Silo's death, but Mauregato organized a strong opposition and forced the new king to withdraw to lands in Alava (his mother, Munia, was Basque), obtaining the Asturian throne. This king, despite the bad reputation attributed by history, had good relations with Beato de Liebana, perhaps the most important cultural figure of the kingdom, and supported him in his fight against adoptionism. Legend says that Mauregato was Alphonse I's bastard son with a Moorish woman, and attributes to him the tribute of a hundred maidens. He was succeeded by Bermudo I, Aurelio's brother. He was called the deacon, although he probably only received minor vows. Bermudo abdicated after a military defeat, ending his life in a monastery.

Recognition

It was not until King Alfonso II of Asturias (791-842) that the kingdom was firmly established with Alfonso's recognition as king of Asturias by Charlemagne and the Pope. He conquered Galicia and the Basques. During his reign, the holy bones of St. James the Great were declared to be found in Galicia, at Santiago de Compostela (from Latin campus stellae, literally "the field of the star"). Pilgrims from all over Europe opened a way of communication between the isolated Asturias and the Carolingian lands and beyond.

The first capital city was Cangas de Onís. Then, in Silo's time, it was moved to Pravia. Alfonso II chose Oviedo as the definite capital of the Kingdom. The kingdom was known as Asturias until 924, when it became the Kingdom of León. It continued under that name until incorporated into the Kingdom of Castile in 1230, after Ferdinand III became joint king of the two kingdoms.

Religion

Remnants of Megalithic and Celtic paganism

Image of the Santa Cruz dolmen, burial place of chieftains of the Eastern Asturian area since Megalithic times.

Although the earliest evidence of Christian worship in Asturias date from the 5th century, evangelisation did not make any substantial progress until the middle of the 6th century, when hermits like Santo Turibius of Liébana and monks of the Saint Fructuoso order gradually settled in the lands of the Cantabrian mountains and began preaching the Christian doctrine to the locals.

Christianisation went slowly in Asturias without supplanting the ancient pagan divinities. As elsewhere in Europe, the new religion coexisted syncretically with features of the ancient beliefs. Still in the 6th Century, bishop San Martín de Braga complained in his work De correctione rusticorum about the attachment of the Galician peasants to the pre-Christian cults: "Many demons, who were expelled from the heavens, settled in the sea, in the rivers, fountains and forests, and have come to be worshipped as gods by ignorant people. To them they do their sacrifices: in the sea they invoke Neptune, in the rivers the Lamias; in the fountains the Nymphs, and in the forests Diana."

The yew tree is still very important in Asturian folklore, where it stands as a link to the afterlife.

In the middle of the Sella valley (where Cangas de Onís is located) there was a dolmen area, which dated back to the megalithic era, and was built probably in the period 4,000 - 2,000 BC. In this place, particularly in Santa Cruz Dolmen, the ritual burials of the surrounding regions' chieftains were performed. Such practices survived the Roman and Visigothic conquests to a point that even in the 8th century king Favila was buried there, in the same place were the corpses of ancient tribal leaders had their final rest. Although the Asturian monarchy fostered the Christianization of this site (ordering the edification of a church), there are still today Pagan traditions linked with the Santa Cruz dolmen: It is said that xanas (Asturian fairies) appear to visitors, and magical properties are ascribed to the soil of the place.

According to a inscription found in the Santa Cruz church, its consacration took place in year 738 and was presided by a vates called Asterio. The word vates is uncommon in Catholic documents and epitaphs, where the word presbyterus (for Christian priests) is preferred. On the other hand, vates was used in Latin to denote a poet with clairvoyance powers and according to the Ancient Greek writers Strabo, Diodorus Siculus, and Poseidonius, the vates (ουατεις) were also one of three classes of Celtic priesthood, the other two being the druids and the bards. Some historians think that Asterio held a religious office which combined elements of the pagan and Christian religions, while others think he may be linked to the Brythonic refugees that settled in Britonia (Galicia) in the 6th century: The Parrochiale Suevorum (an administrative document of the Suebi Kingdom) tells that the lands of Asturias belonged to the Britonian see, and it is a fact that some features of the Celtic Christianity penetrated in Northern Spain, like the Celtic tonsure which was condemned by the Visigoth bishops who assisted to the Fourth Council of Toledo.

Still today there remain in Galician legends related to monks who travelled by sea to the Paradise Islands, like those of Saint Amaro, Trezenzonio or Ero de Armenteira. These stories have many parallels with that of Saint Brendan the navigator, Saint Maclovius of Wales, and the stories of the Irish immrama.

Christianization was fostered by the Asturian kings, who did not base their power in the indigenous religious traditions (unlike other medieval European kings, like Penda of Mercia or Widukind), but in the texts of the Christian Sacred Scriptures (particularly, the books of Revelation, Ezekiel and Daniel) and the Fathers of the Church, which furnished the new monarchy with its foundational myths.

Adoptionism

The foundations of Asturian culture and that of Christian Spain in the High Middle Ages were laid during the reigns of Silo and Mauregato, when the Asturian kings submitted to the authority of the Umayyad emirs of the Caliphate of Córdoba. The most prominent Christian scholar in the Kingdom of Asturias of this period was Beatus of Liébana, whose works left an indelible mark in the Christian culture of the Reconquista.

Beatus map.

Beatus was directly involved in the debate surrounding adoptionism, which argued that Jesus was born a man, and was adopted by God and acquired a divine dimension only after his passion and resurrection. Beatus refuted this theological position, championed by such figures as Elipandus, bishop of Toledo.

The adoptionist theology had its roots in Gothic Arianism, which denied the divinity of Jesus, and in Greco-Roman paganism, with examples of heroes like Herakles who, after their death attained the apotheosis. Likewise, as Elipandus's bishopric of Toledo was at the time within the Muslim Caliphate of Cordoba, Islamic beliefs which acknowledged Jesus as a Prophet, but not as the Son of God, influenced the formation of adoptionism. However, the adoptionist theology opposed strongly by Beatus from his abbey in Santo Toribio de Liébana. At the same time, Beatus strengthened the links between Asturias, Rome, and the Carolingian Empire, and was supported in his theological struggle by the Pope and by his friend Alcuin of York, an Anglo-Saxon scholar who had settled among the Carolingian court in Aachen.

Millennialism

The Angel of the Fifth Trumpet, an example of a beati manuscript.

The most transcendental works of Beatus were his Commentaries to Apocalypse, which were copied in later centuries in manuscripts called beati, about which the Italian writer Umberto Eco said: "Their splendid images gave birth to the most relevant iconographic happening in the History of Mankind". Beatus develops in them a personal interpretation of the book of Revelation, accompanied by quotes from the Old Testament, the Church Fathers and fascinating illustrations.

In these Commentaries a new interpretation of the apocalyptic accounts is given: Babylon no longer represents the city of Rome, but Córdoba, seat of the Ummayad emirs of Al-Andalus; the Beast, once a symbol of the Roman Empire, now stands for the Islamic invaders who in this time threatened to destroy Western Christianity and who made raids on the territories of the Asturian Kingdom.

In the prologue to the second book of the Commentaries is found one of the best examples of a Mappae Mundi of the high medieval culture. The aim of this map was not to represent the world cartographically, but to serve as an illustration of the Apostles Diaspora in the first decades of Christianity. Beatus took data from the works of Saint Isidore of Seville, Ptolemy and the Holy Scripture. The world was represented as a land disc surrounded by the Ocean and divided in three parts: Asia (upper semicircle), Europe (lower left quadrant) and Africa (lower right quadrant). The Mediterranean Sea (Europe-Africa), the Nile River (Africa-Asia) and the Aegean Sea and the Bosphorus (Europa-Asia) were set as boundaries between the different continental masses.

For Beatus, the Whore of Babylon (Revelation, 17.4-5) (a Christian allegory of evil) was incarnated by the Emirate of Cordoba

. Beatus was persuaded that the Apocalypse described in the book of Revelation was imminent, which would be followed by 1,290 years of domination by the Antichrist. Beatus followed the views of Saint Augustine whose work, The City of God, influenced the Commentaries which followed the premise that the History of the World was structured in six ages: the first five ones extended between the creation of Adam, and the Passion of Jesus, while the sixth, subsequent to Christ and contemporary to us, had to end with the unleashing of the happenings prophesied by the book of Revelation.

Millennialist movements were very common in Europe at that time: between 760 and 780 a series of cosmic phenomena caused panic among the population of Gaul; John, a visionary monk, predicted the coming of the Last Judgement during the reign of Charlemagne. In this time appeared the Apocalypse of Daniel, a Syriac text redacted during the rule of the empress Irene of Byzantium wherein wars between the Arabs, the Byzantines and the Northern peoples were prophesied. These wars would end with the coming of the Antichrist.

Events taking place in Hispania (Islamic rule, the adoptionist heresy, the gradual assimilation of the Mozarabic people...) were, for Beatus, signals of the imminent apocalyptic aeon. As Elipandus describes in his Letter from the bishops of Spania to their brothers in Gaul, the abbot of Santo Toribio went so far as to announce to his countrymen the coming of the End of Time in the Easter of the year 800. On the dawn of that day, hundreds of peasants met around the abbey of Santo Toribio, waiting terrified for the fulfilling of the prophecy. They remained in that place, without having had a bite to eat, during a day and half, until one of them, named Ordonius, exclaimed: "Let us eat and drink, so that if the End of the World comes we are full!".

The prophetic and millennialist visions of Beatus produced an enduring mark in the development of the Kingdom of Asturias: the Chronica Prophetica, which was composed circa 880 AD, predicted the final fall of the Emirate of Córdoba, and the conquest and redemption of the entire Iberian peninsula by king Alfonso III. Millennialist imagery is also reflected throughout the kingdom in the Cruz de la Victoria icon - the major emblem of the Asturian kingdom - has its origins in a passage of the Revelation book in which Saint John relates the following vision of the Parusia: He sees Jesus Christ seated in his Majesty, surrounded by clouds and affirming: "I am Alpha and Omega, the beginning and the ending, saith the Lord, which is, and which was, and which is to come, the Almighty". It is true that usage of the labarum was not restricted to Asturias, and, moreover, dates back to the time of Constantine the Great (who used this symbol during the battle of Battle of the Milvian Bridge). But it was in Asturias where the Cruz de la Victoria attained a general use: In nearly every Pre-romanesque church this icon is engraved, often accompanied with the expression "Hoc signo tuetur pius, in hoc signo vincitur inimicus", that became the royal motto of the Asturian monarchs.

El Camino de Santiago

Another of the major spiritual legacies of the Asturian Kingdom is the creation of one of the most important ways of cultural transmission in European history: The Way of St. James. The first text which mentions St. James' preaching in Spain is the Breviarius de Hyerosolima, a 6th-century document which stated that the Apostle was buried in an enigmatical place called Aca Marmarica. Saint Isidore of Seville supported this theory in his work De ortu et obitu patrium. One hundred fifty years later, in times of Mauregato, the hymn O Dei Verbum rendered St. James as "the golden head of Spain, our protector and national patron" and a mention is made of his preaching in the Iberian Peninsula during the first decades of Christianity. Some attribute this hymn to Beatus, although this is still discussed by historians.

The legend of St. James gained support during the reign of Alfonso II when the Galician herit Pelayo claimed to observe mysterious brightness during several nights over the wood of Libredón, in Iria Flavia diocese. Angelic songs accompanied the lights. Impressed by this phenomenon, Pelayo appeared before the bishop of Iria Flavia, Teodomirus, who – after having heard the hermit – visited the location with his retinue. In the depths of the forest was found a stone sepulcre with three corpses, which were identified with those of St. James, son of Zebedee, and his two disciples, Theodorus and Atanasius. According to the legend, king Alfonso was the first pilgrim who had come to see the Apostle: During the travel he was guided at night by the Milky Way, which from then on acquired in Spanish the name Camino de Santiago.

The founding of St. James tomb was a formidable political success for the Kingdom of Asturias: Now Asturias could claim the honour of having a corpse of one of the apostles of Jesus, a privilege shared only with Asia (Ephesus) where Saint John was buried, and Rome, where the corpses of Saint Peter and Saint Paul rested. From this moment on, Santiago de Compostela became one of the three sacred cities of Christianity, together with Rome and Jerusalem. In later centuries, many Central European cultural influences travelled to Iberia through the Way of St. James, from the Gothic and Romanesque styles, to the Occitan lyric poetry.

However, the story of the "discovery" of the remains of the Apostle shows some enigmatic features. The tomb was found in a place used as a necropolis since the Late Roman Empire, so it is possible that the corpse belonged to a prominent person of the area: British historian Henry Chadwick hypothesized the tomb of Compostela actually hold the remains of Priscillian. Other scholars, like Constantino Cabal, highlighted the fact that several Galician places, such as Pico Sacro, Pedra da Barca (Muxía) or San Andrés de Teixido, were already in Pre-Roman times draws for Pagan pilgrimage. Pagan beliefs held these places as the End of the World, and as entrances to the Celtic Otherworld. After the discovery of Saint James' tomb, the gradual Christianization of those routes of pilgrimage began.

Mythology

Since the Chronicles of the Asturian kingdom were written a century and a half after the battle of Covadonga, there are many aspects of the first Asturian kings that remain shrouded in myth and legend.

Although the historicity of Pelayo is beyond doubt, the historical narrative describing him includes many folktales and legends. One of them asserts that prior to the Muslim invasion, Pelayo went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the sacred city of Christianity. However, there is no extant evidence of this.

Ercina lake. According to the legend, under its waters a village -or perhaps a city- is hidden.

Likewise, it is also said that the Cruz de la Victoria was at first carved in an oak's log by a lightning strike. The core of this story contains two elements of major importance in the Asturian folklore: On one hand, lightning was the ancient symbol of the Astur (and Celtic) god Taranis, and in Asturian mythology was thought to be forged by the Nuberu, lord of clouds, rain and wind. On the other hand, the oak tree is the symbol of the Asturian royalty and in reliefs of the Abamia Church (where Pelayo was buried) leaves of that tree are shown.

In one of the caves in Kyffhäuser mountain, lives Frederick Barbarossa surrounded by his cavaliers, somewhat similar to those of Fruela and Bernardo del Carpio. The Covadonga area is also rich with astonishing stories, such as the one which is said to have happened in a shepherd village where today Enol and Ercina lakes are situated. The Virgin Mary, disguised as a pilgrim, is said to have visited that village and asked for food and shelter from every house of that village. She was rudely rejected by every person, except for a shepherd who gave her refuge and warmly shared everything he had. On the following day, as punishment for their lack of hospitality, a flood of divine origin devastated the village, which completely covered everything except the cottage of the good shepherd. In front of him, the mysterious guest started to cry, and her tears became flowers when they reached the floor. Then the shepherd realized that the pilgrim was actually the Virgin Mary.

This is a Pan-celtic myth which is also found in other countries of the Atlantic Arch. In Galicia it is said that in the bottom of the Antela lake there are remnants of the ancient population of Antiochia, which vanished off the face of earth by a night deluge, in punishment for the sins of its inhabitants. On the other coast of the Biscay Bay, in Brittany, there are traditions related with the city of Ker-Ys, situated in the Douarnenez gulf, in lands claimed from the sea and protected by a dam. The daughter of the king, Dahud, gave the keys of the city to Satan, who had disguised himself as a beautiful prince: This resulted in the flooding of Ys by the waters of the Ocean.

Illustration of Hezekiah's Canticle belonging to the book Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry. The Asturian monarchs often took the Jewish kings of the Old Testament as their models.

There are also myths about the Asturian Monarchy that are rooted in Jewish and Christian traditions rather than Pagan ones: the Chronica ad Sebastianum tells of an extraordinary event that happened when king Alfonso I died. While the noblemen were holding a wake for him, there could be heard celestial canticles sung by angels. They recited the following text of the Book of Isaiah (which happens to be the same that was read by the Mozarabic priests during the Vigil of the Holy Saturday):

I said in the cutting off of my days, I shall go to the gates of the grave: I am deprived of the residue of my years.
I said, I shall not see the LORD, even the LORD, in the land of the living: I shall behold man no more with the inhabitants of the world.
Mine age is departed, and is removed from me as a shepherd's tent: I have cut off like a weaver my life: he will cut me off with pining sickness: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me.
I reckoned till morning, that, as a lion, so will he break all my bones: from day even to night wilt thou make an end of me.
Like a crane or a swallow, so did I chatter: I did mourn as a dove: mine eyes fail with looking upward: O LORD, I am oppressed; undertake for me.

This canticle was recited by Hezekiah, king of Judah, after his recovery from a serious illness. In these verses, the King regretted with distress his departure to sheol, the Jewish Underworld, a shady place where he would not see God nor men any more.

Asturias also has examples of the Sleeping Hero myth. According to the tradition, it is still today possible to see king Fruela walking around the Jardín de los Reyes Caudillos (a part of the Oviedo Cathedral), and it is said that his grandson, the famous cavalier Bernardo del Carpio, sleeps in a cave in the Asturian mountains. The story tells that one day a peasant went into a certain cave to retrieve his lost cow, and heard a strong voice who declared to be Bernardo del Carpio, winner over the Franks in Roncevaux. After saying he had lived alone for centuries in that cave, he told the peasant: "Give me your hand, so that I can see how strong are men today". The shepherd, scared, gave him the horn of the cow, which, when seized by the giant man, was immediately broken. The poor villager ran away terrified, but not without hearing Bernardo say: "Current men are not like those who helped me to kill Frenchmen in Roncevaux".

There are evident parallels between these stories and those which surround another medieval characters like Barbarossa or King Arthur. It is said that Barbarossa did not die, but retired to a cave in the Kyffhäuser mountain, and that one day, when the ravens no long fly around the mountain, he will awake and restore Germany to its ancient greatness. King Arthur, according to many traditions, lives in many hills and caves of the island of Great Britain. His most famous dwelling is the Eildon Hill in Scotland, where he took refuge after the battle of Camlann.

Legacy

The Kingdom of Asturias was, in its infancy, an indigenous reaction of Astures and Cantabri peoples to a foreign invasion. These people had fought the Romans in the Astur-Cantabrian Wars, and initially resisted Romanisation. Although they preserved many characteristics of their pre-Roman culture, their Celtic languages were later lost in favor of Latin.

Church of Santa María del Naranco. Eastern façade. This is probably the finest example of Asturian architecture.

This kingdom is the birthplace of an influential European medieval architectural style: Asturian Preromanesque. This style of architecture was founded during the reign of Ramiro I.

This small kingdom was a milestone in the fight against Adoptionist heresy, with Beatus of Liébana as a major figure. In the time of Alfonso II, the shrine of Santiago was "found." The pilgrimage to Santiago, Camino de Santiago, was a major nexus within Europe, and many pilgrims (and their money) passed through Asturias on their way to Santiago de Compostela.

See also

List of Asturian monarchs Asturian art Reconquista History of Spain History of Portugal Timeline of the Muslim occupation of the Iberian Peninsula Timeline of Portuguese history Al' Garb Al'Andalus and the beginning of the Reconquista (8th to 9th century) First County of Portugal (9th to 11th Century) Autonomous community of Asturias.

References

• Glick, Thomas, Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages, Leiden: Brill, 2005, ISBN 9004147713 

External links

• Information and virtual reconstructions of early monuments of Oviedo