痛苦
痛苦(suffering,pain)是構成情感現象負面效價(valence)的基本要素。痛苦的反面是快樂或幸福等。與個人對傷害或傷害威脅的感知有關[1]。
- 肉體痛苦(physical suffering)的例子如:各種類型的疼痛,過熱,過冷,瘙癢,飢餓,口渴,噁心,空氣飢,睡眠剝奪[2]。
- 精神痛苦(mental suffering)的例子如:抑鬱、絕望、喪慟、悲傷、孤獨、心碎、厭惡、易激惹、憤怒、嫉妒、嫉妒、渴望、沮喪、煩悶、焦慮、恐懼、恐慌、羞恥、內疚、後悔、尷尬、羞辱、不安[3]。
痛苦可能有各種程度的強度,從輕微到無法忍受。持續時間長度和發生頻率的因素通常與強度因素相結合。受苦者或其他人對痛苦的態度可能有很大差異,這取決於它被認為是可以避免或不可避免、有用或無用、值得或不值得的。
苦在各種生物的生命中以多種方式發生,經常是戲劇性的。因此,人類活動的許多領域都與痛苦的某些方面有關。這些方面可能包括痛苦的性質、過程、起源和原因和意義、相關的個人、社會和文化行為[4]、治療、管理和使用。
痛苦與人類的意識有關,而且經常伴隨着過去的經驗。
造成痛苦的常見示例有:
字源
編輯在漢語中,痛,是指肉體上的疼痛,而苦,則是來自於味覺上的苦澀感覺,將這兩種感覺結合,就形成痛苦這個詞。痛苦是一個概括性的形容語,肉體上產生的疼痛感受,可以稱為痛苦,而心靈上的煩惱掙扎,也可以稱為痛苦。
宗教對「苦」的詮釋
編輯參考資料
編輯- ^ For instance, Wayne Hudson in Historicizing Suffering, Chapters, Springer, 2012) : "According to the standard account suffering is a universal human experience described as a negative basic feeling or emotion that involves a subjective character of unpleasantness, aversion, harm or threat of harm to body or mind (Spelman 1997; Cassell 1991)."
- ^ Examples of physical suffering: pain of various types, excessive heat, excessive cold, itching, hunger, thirst, nausea, air hunger, sleep deprivation. IASP Pain Terminology. [September 11, 2008]. (原始內容存檔於September 26, 2008).UAB – School of Medicine – Center for Palliative and Supportive Care. [2008-09-11]. (原始內容存檔於2007-10-28). Other examples are given by L. W. Sumner, on p. 103 of Welfare, Happiness, and Ethics (頁面存檔備份,存於互聯網檔案館): "Think for a moment of the many physical symptoms which, when persistent, can make our lives miserable: nausea, hiccups, sneezing, dizziness, disorientation, loss of balance, itching, 'pins and needles', 'restless legs', tics, twitching, fatigue, difficulty in breathing, and so on."
- ^ Mental suffering can also be called psychological or emotional (see Psychological pain). Examples of mental suffering: depression (mood) / hopelessness, grief, sadness / loneliness / heartbreak, disgust, irritation, anger, jealousy, envy, craving or yearning, frustration, anguish, angst, fear, anxiety / panic, shame / guilt, regret, embarrassment / humiliation, restlessness.
- ^ Eggerman, Panter Brick, Mark, Catherine. Suffering, hope, and entrapment: Resilience and cultural values in Afghanistan. Social Science & Medicine. 2010, 71 (1): 71–83. PMC 3125115 . PMID 20452111. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.023.