维基百科

User:Wolfch/注意力不足過動症

< User:Wolfch
注意力不足過動症
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
同义词注意力不足疾患、多動障礙（ICD-10）
注意力不足過動症的常見症狀
注意力不足過動症的常見症狀
症状不容易專注、過度活動、不易控制行為[1][2]
常見始發於在6至12歲之前[3]
病程超過六個月[3]
肇因遺傳（英语：Genetic disorder）和環境因素（英语：environmental factors）[4][5]
診斷方法排除其他疾病後，依症狀進行診斷[1]
相似疾病或共病行為規範障礙、對立反抗症、學習障礙、躁鬱症[6]
治療心理治療、生活方式調整、藥物[1]
藥物中樞神經刺激劑、阿托莫西汀、胍法辛[7][8]
盛行率5110萬人（2015年）[9]
分类和外部资源
醫學專科精神病学、兒童與青少年精神醫學
[编辑此条目的维基数据]
「ADHD」的各地常用譯名
中国大陸注意力缺陷多动障碍
臺灣注意力不足過動症
香港專注力失調或過度活躍症
澳門專注力失調/過度活躍症
日本注意欠陥・多動性障害
大韓民國注意力缺乏過多行動障礙
注意力缺乏 過剩行動 症候群
越南𦇒亂增動減注意

注意力不足過動症（Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder）簡稱ADHD，是神經發展障礙的精神疾患[10][11]，其特點是注意力不足、活動過度或是衝動，而且不符合患者年齡該有的情形[1][2]。症狀會在12歲以前出現，持續超過六個月，而且其症狀已造成至少二個情境（例如學校、家庭或是交友休閒）的問題[3][12]。對於兒童而言，注意力不集中可能會造成課業成績不佳的情形[1]。有時注意力不足過動症也會和其他心理疾患或是物質濫用有關[13]。注意力不足過動症會對患者造成不便，不過許多患有ADHD的人在其有興趣的事物上可以有持續性的專注力（稱為過度專注）[5][14]。

注意力不足過動症是目前診斷最多，也有最多研究的兒童及青少年精神疾病，不過對於大部份的案例而言，還不確定確切的致病原因[4]。依照《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第四版（DSM-IV）的準則，約有5–7%的兒童診斷為注意力不足過動症[2][15]，若依照《世界通用疾病分類手冊》第十版ICD-10的準則，則有1–2%診斷為注意力不足過動症[16]。2015年估計全球有5110萬人受到注意力不足過動症的影響[9]。盛行率主要會受到診斷方式及判斷基準不同所影響[17]，男孩診斷出ADHD的比例是女孩的二倍以上[2]，不過因為ADHD女孩的症狀和男孩不同，因此常被忽略[18][19][20]。兒童期診斷到的注意力不足過動症，約到30–50%會持續到成年，成年人約有2–5%會有成人注意力不足過動症[21][22][23]。在成人注意力不足過動症中，過動的情形可能會被「內在的不安寧」所取代[24]。ADHD的症狀可能不太容易和其他疾病的症狀區分，也不太容易區分正常範圍的活力充沛以及過動的分界點在哪裡[12]。

注意力不足過動症的治療的建議方式依各國而不同，一般都會以心理治療、生活方式調整以及藥物，這三種中的一種或多種方式來進行治療[1]。英國的醫學指南建議針對兒童，只有在症狀嚴重時，才建議使用藥物為第一線的療法，若兒童拒絕接受心理治療，或是接受治療後進展不大，需考慮用藥物進行治療，若針對成人，藥物為第一線的治療方式[25]。加拿大及美國則是建議第一線的治療應該是合併藥物治療及行為治療，只有一些學齡前的兒童例外[26][27]。在所有的醫學指南中，都不建議針對學齡前的兒童用興奮劑作為第一線的治療方式[25][27]。用興奮劑治療，在前十四個月的療效有研究資料可供佐證，不過不確定長期使用的療效[28][29][30]。患有ADHD的成人可能會發展出應對方法（英语：Coping_(psychology)），來處理因ADHD症狀造成的部份或所有影響[31]。

18世紀起的醫學文獻中就有描述過類似注意力不足過動症的症狀[32]。自1970年起，就有出現有關注意力不足過動症疾病本身、其診斷及治療方式的爭議[33]，爭議和臨床醫師、教師、政策訂定者、家長及媒體有關。爭議焦點包括ADHD的病因，以及是否要用興奮劑來治療ADHD[34]。目前大部份的醫療人員都接受ADHD是兒童及成人的遺傳性疾病，科學界的爭議點則是在其診斷方式及治療方式[35][36][37]。此疾病在1980年至1987年的正式名稱是注意力缺失症（attention-deficit disorder，簡稱ADD），在更早期的名稱是兒童過度活躍的反應（hyperkinetic reaction of childhood）[38][39]。

名稱 编辑

注意力不足過動症也译作注意力不集中/過動症（英語：Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder，簡稱AD/HD）、過度活躍症（英語：Hyperkinetic Disorder；於ICD 10中的名稱），俗称有多動症、多動障礙及大雄·胖虎症候群（日本）等。此病患的兒童習稱過動兒，也有醫療人士建議改稱為心動兒。[40]

症狀及體徵 编辑

ADHD的症狀[41]
專注力失調 過動-衝動
  • 很難注意事情的細節
  • 不容易專注在一件事情上
  • 不容易針對事物或是活動進行規劃組織
  • 會遺忘一些需要的物品
  • 在日常活動中比較健忘
  • 注意力持續時間較短，較容易分心
  • 不容易處理較具結構性的學校功課
  • 難以完成繁瑣或需要花時間的任務
  • 沒辦法好好坐著
  • 在座位上坐立不安、動來動去
  • 會在不適當的時間點離開座位
  • 從事具風險性的事物，不太考慮後果
  • 時常處於活躍狀態、精力充沛、停不下來
  • 說話的頻率及時間會比其他人要多
  • 問題未說完就搶著說答案
  • 不容易輪流等候
  • 在對話中常常插嘴或是打斷別人說話

注意力不足過動症的常見情形有不專心、過動（在成人則會以不安來表現）、破壞行為及衝動[42][43]。在人際關係及學業上都容易出現問題[42]，不過其症狀不容易定義，因為很難介定一般情形下的不專心、過動及衝動會到什麼程度，到什麼情形下才需要介入治療[44]。

依照《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》（DSM）第五版（DSM-5）的定義，注意力不足過動症的症狀需出現超過六個月，或是其情形要比同年齡的要明顯很多[2]，而且其症狀已造成至少二個情境（例如社交、學校/工作、家庭）的問題[2]，這些條件需在12歲以前就出現[2]，若是17歲以下的，在專注力失調或是過動/衝動上的症狀，至少需要有五項符合[2]。

子類型 编辑

注意力不足過動症可分為三個子類型：ADHD注意力不足為主型（英语：Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive）（ADHD-PI或ADHD-I）、ADHD過動為主型（ADHD-PH或ADHD-HI）以及混合型（ADHD-C）[2][44]。

若是以注意力不足（專注力失調）為主的兒童或青少年，會有以下大部份甚至全部的症狀，且非由其他醫學疾病或藥物直接造成[2][45]：

  • 容易分心、粗心、忘記事情、且經常從一件事情切換至另一件事情。
  • 很難持續專注在同一件事情上。
  • 除非進行自身有興趣的事務，不然進行幾分鐘後就覺得無聊。
  • 難以對組織（規劃）事情、完成一個任務保持專注。
  • 很難完成回家作業，或是如期繳交，常會遺失一些要完成作業或是其他活動需要的東西（例如鉛筆、玩具、作業等）*
  • 當別人在和患者說話時，似乎沒有在聽對方說話。
  • 作白日夢、很感到困惑、動作緩慢。
  • 不容易像其他非注意力不足過動症患者一樣，快速且準確的處理資訊。
  • 難以遵從指示
  • 不容易認知細節，常忽略細節。

若是以過動為主的兒童或青少年，會有以下大部份甚至全部的症狀且非由其他醫學疾病或藥物直接造成[2][45]：

  • 常常煩躁及坐立不安
  • 不停地講話
  • 四處東奔西跑、碰觸或玩弄視野內的任一或每一個物體。
  • 難以在上課時間、吃飯時間、做功課的時間乖乖坐好。
  • 一直在動來動去。
  • 不容易進行安靜的活動或是工作。
  • 沒有耐心
  • 脫口說出不恰當的話語、毫無掩飾地流露內心的想法，且行事不顧後果。
  • 難耐在遊戲中因輪流所產生的等待時間。
  • 經常打斷他人的對話或活動。

若注意力不足過動症患者的症狀符合上述二類，則屬於合併型的注意力不足過動症。

ADHD的女性比較不會有過動及衝動的症狀，比較會有注意力不集中及分心的症狀[46]。注意力不足過動症中有關過動的症狀，可能會隨著年齡增長而漸漸消退，而轉變為青少年及成人階段的「內在不安寧」[21]。

注意力不足過動症的兒童、青少年及成年比較容易有社交技巧上的問題，例如社交互動、發展友誼及建立友誼。有半數的注意力不足過動症患者曾受到同儕社會排斥的情形，而沒有注意力不足過動症的人被社會排斥的比例約為10%至15%。患有注意力不足過動症的人比較不容易處理口語及非語言的訊息，比較容易在社交互動上有負面的影響，也比較容易在對話時離題、忽略到一些社交的資訊、也比較不容易學習社交技能[47]。

注意力不足過動症的兒童比較常有不容易控制情緒的問題[48]，其寫字（英语：handwriting）能力也比較弱[49]，在語言、說話及運動上的發展都比較晚[50][51]。雖然注意力不足過動症會造成許多的不便，不過若注意力不足過動症的兒童針對有興趣的主題及事物，其專注力持續時間和其他兒童相當，甚至比其他兒童要好[14]。

可能有關的疾病 编辑

在注意力不足過動症患者中，大約會有三分之二的機率會伴隨其他的疾病或特徵[14]。常見的共病或特徵如下：

  • 癫痫[52]
  • 妥瑞症[52]
  • 自閉症光譜（ASD）：此疾病會影響社交技巧、溝通能力，也會出現固定興趣和重複行為[52]。
  • 在注意力不足過動症患者中，較常出現有焦虑症的情形[53]。
  • 間歇性暴怒（英语：Intermittent explosive disorder）[2]
  • 在注意力不足過動症的兒童中，有20%至30%有學習障礙的情形。學習障礙可能包括發展障礙、語言障礙以及學習技巧的障礙[54]。注意力不足過動症本身不是一種學習障礙，不過常常會造成其他學業上的困難[54]。
  • 强迫症（OCD）常和注意力不足過動症一起出現，其中也有許多相同的特徵[55]。
  • 智能障礙[2]
  • 反應性依附疾患（英语：Reactive attachment disorder）[2]
  • 物質使用疾患。注意力不足過動症的兒童及成人在物質濫用上的風險較高[21]。最常見的是酒或是大麻[21]。物質使用疾患的原因可能和注意力不足過動症造成的大腦回饋酬賞迴路（英语：reward pathway）改變有關[21]。若注意力不足過動症和物質使用疾患一起出現，這會讓注意力不足過動症的評估及治療更加困難。如果ADHD合併「嚴重的」物質濫用問題，基於往後衍生的風險大小之考量，會優先治療物質濫用問題[56][57]
  • 睡眠障碍常和ADHD一起出現。這也可能是治療ADHD的副作用。對於注意力不足過動症的兒童而言，失眠是最常見的睡眠障碍，一般會用行為療法來進行治療[58][59]。 ADHD患者常伴隨著不容易入睡的問題，而他們也會睡的比較熟，因此早上不容易起床[60]，有時會針對不容易入睡的兒童用褪黑素治療[61]。
  • ADHD的患者約有50%有對立反抗症（ODD），有20%有行為規範障礙（CD）[62]，其特性是反社會的行為，例如心態固執、有攻擊性、常常鬧脾氣（英语：temper tantrums）、說謊和偷竊等[55]。若有對立反抗症或行為規範障礙的ADHD患者，長大成人後出現反社会人格障碍的機率約有一半[63]。根據腦部造影，可確認ADHD和行為規範障礙是兩種不同的疾病[64]。
  • 有關注意力的原發型疾病，其症狀是注意力不佳，不容易專注，也不容易維持清醒。這類兒童常會坐立不安、打呵欠及伸展身體，這些動作看似過動，但其實是為了讓自己維持警覺以及有活力的狀態[65]。
  • 遲緩的認知速率（英语：Sluggish cognitive tempo）（SCT）是許多症狀的總稱，其中不少症狀可能也包括了注意力不足的問題。在ADHD的個案中，不論其子類型如何，有30%至50%符合這些症狀[66]。
  • 刻板的慣性動作症（英语：Stereotypic movement disorder）[2]
  • 情感障礙（特別是躁鬱症及重度抑郁症）。診斷患有混合子類型ADHD的男孩較容易有情感障礙[53]。有ADHD的成人有時也會有躁鬱症，需要很仔細的評估來診斷及治療這兩種疾病[67]。
  • 注意力不足過動症的患者較常有不寧腿綜合症，一般是因為缺鐵性貧血所造成[68][69]。不過不寧腿綜合症也可能是注意力不足過動症症狀的一部份，因此需要進行詳細的診斷，區分不寧腿綜合症和注意力不足過動症[70]。
  • 注意力不足過動症的患者出現夜遺尿的風險較高[71]。

有一個2016年的系統回顧發現注意力不足過動症和肥胖、哮喘及睡眠障礙有有著直接的關聯，和乳糜泻和偏頭痛也有一些關係[72]。不過同一年的另一篇系統回顧認為注意力不足過動症和乳糜泻沒有明確關係[73]。

智力 编辑

有研究發現患有注意力不足過動症的人其智商（IQ）測試的結果會比沒有注意力不足過動症的人要低[74]，不過有關此研究結果的重要性，目前仍有爭議，因為很難區分影響是因為ADHD的症狀（例如分心）所造成還是ADHD本身對於智力有影響[74]。

有一份成人ADHD的研究指出有關ADHD患者在智力上的差異，沒有統計上的意義，也可以用其他相關的疾病來解釋[75]。

病因 编辑

大多數注意力不足過動症（ADHD）的確切成因目前並沒有定論[76][77]，目前認為最有可能是基因、環境和社會等因素交互作用導致[76][77]。有些則是因為之前孕婦或是嬰兒的感染，或是嬰兒腦部創傷而引起[76]。

基因遺傳 编辑

双生子研究指出此疾病常常是遺傳得來的，佔了所有案例的75%[78][79][80]。若一兒童的兄弟姊妹中有患有ADHD，其自己身罹患ADHD的機率，是兄弟姊妹都沒有ADHD的兒童的三至四倍[81]。一般也認為基因因素會決定ADHD的症狀是否會持續到成年[82]。

一般來說，ADHD和許多基因有關，特別是和會影響多巴胺神經傳導的基因有關[83][84]。和多巴胺有關的有多巴胺轉運體（DAT）、多巴胺受体D4（DRD4）、多巴胺受体D5（英语：DRD5）、痕量胺相關受體1（英语：TAAR1）、單胺氧化酶A（英语：MAOA）、儿茶酚-O-甲基转移酶（COMT）及多巴胺β羟化酶（DBH）[84][85][86]，其他和ADHD有關的有血清素轉運體（SERT）、HTR1B（英语：HTR1B）、SNAP25（英语：SNAP25）、GRIN2A（英语：GRIN2A）、ADRA2A（英语：ADRA2A）、TPH2（英语：TPH2）及脑源性神经营养因子（BDNF）[83][84]。有一種常見的Latrophilin 3（英语：Latrophilin 3）基因變異，估計造成9%的ADHD，若有這種變異時，會對興奮劑藥物格外有反應[87]。DRD4 7R變體基因會增強多巴胺造成的抑制作用，也和ADHD有關。DRD4受體是G蛋白偶联受体，會抑制腺苷酸环化酶。DRD4-7R變異會造成許多行為上的表型，包括反映了注意力分散的ADHD症狀[88]。

演化也可能是造成ADHD高比率的原因，特別是男性過動以及衝動的傾向[89]，有人曾提出假說，認為女性比較容易被會冒險的男性所吸引，因此增加了基因庫中愛好衝動及冒險的基因的比率[90]。其他人則認為這種傾向有助於男性面對有壓力或是危險的環境（例如更有衝勁，從事探索行為）[89][90]。在特定情境下，ADHD傾向雖然對個體是有害的，但是對群體是有益的[89][90][91]。ADHD雖然對個體可能不利，但其高比例以及異質性也有利於群體的生殖健康，並且可以增加基因庫的多樣性，對群體有益[91]。在特定環境下，ADHD也可能對個體有利，例如對捕食者的反應更快，以及較好的狩獵技巧（英语：Hunter vs. farmer hypothesis）等[92]。

患有唐氏综合征的人比較容易患有ADHD[93]。

環境因素 编辑

除了基因外，一些環境因子也可能是注意力不足過動症的致病因素[94]。例如：在懷孕期間攝取酒精可能導致胎兒酒精譜系障礙，可能包括了注意力不足過動症，或是有類似症狀[95]。暴露在特定有毒物質，例如：鉛或多氯聯苯等，可能會產生類似注意力不足過動症的中毒症狀[4][96]。暴露在磷酸酯的殺蟲劑毒死蜱及烷基磷酸酯（英语：Alkyl phosphate）中，也可能會增加患病的風險，不過此一論點尚未受到廣泛認可[97]。在懷孕過程中吸菸，將不利於胚胎的腦部神經發育，並將增加罹患注意力不足過動症的機率[4][98]。

新生兒極度早產、体重過輕、極端疏於照料、遭受凌虐、缺乏社會的互動也會增加ADHD的風險[4][99]。母親在懷孕期間、兒童在出生時或成長初期遭受一些疾病的感染都可能提高致病率（例如麻疹、帶狀皰疹、脑炎、風疹、EV71等）[100]。長時間於妊娠期間使用對乙醯胺酚與孩子出生後帶有ADHD，有統計上的相關性[101][102]。創傷性腦損傷的兒童中，後來至少有30%有ADHD的症狀[103]，其中約有5%是因為腦部損傷[104]。

一些研究發現，人工食用色素或防腐劑可能與少部分兒童出現類似ADHD的症狀，或者是與ADHD的流行率增加有關[4][105]，但是這些研究的證據力薄弱，而且可能只適用於有食物敏感的孩子[105][106][107]。英国及欧洲联盟已針對這些疑慮發布相關食品管理措施[108]。對於某些食物的食物過敏或食物不耐症，可能會惡化少數孩子既有的ADHD症狀[109]。

截至2018年11月，研究並不支持注意力不足過動症是因為攝取過多的精緻糖、看太多電視、教養方式（英语：parenting）、貧窮或家庭吵吵鬧鬧所造成，不過這些可能會讓一些注意力不足過動症的症狀更加惡化[43]。

社會 编辑

有些情形下，ADHD的患者不是其自身的問題，而是反映了家庭機能不全或是教育系統的不足[110]。也有一種情形，診斷出ADHD表示其他人對其課業期待的增加，因為在一些國家，診斷是一種讓家長取得更多對小孩經濟及教育支持的方式[104]。一般有經歷過暴力或是情感虐待的兒童比較容易出現ADHD的行為[78]。

ADHD的社會建構理論（英语：social construct theory of ADHD）認為評斷正常及異常的標準是社會建構的（是由社會中的所有人建立並且使其有效的，特別是医生、病患、家長、教師等），然後再主觀的評估及判斷要使用哪一種準則，以及有多少人會因此受到影響[111]。他們認為這是依DSM-IV標準診斷到的ADHD人數會是由ICD-10標準所診斷人數三至四倍的原因[20]。湯瑪士·薩斯是ADHD社會建構理論的支持者，他認為ADHD是「發明出來的，之後取了這個名字」[112]。

班上裡年齡最小的兒童比較容易診斷為ADHD，原因可能是他們的發展本來就比其他年齡略長幾個月到一年的同學要晚一些[113][114][115]，在許多國家都有出現這種情形[115]，他們使用ADHD藥物的比例也是其他同學的兩倍左右[116]。

病理生理學 编辑

現今的ADHD病理生理學模型認為ADHD和腦內的神經傳導物質系統的功能障礙有關（特別是與多巴胺和正腎上腺素有關的部份）[117][118]。多巴胺及正腎上腺素的神經通道起源於腹側被蓋區及藍斑核，投射到大腦中的不同部位，管理許多不同的認知流程[117][119]。投射到前額葉皮質及纹状体的多巴胺通道（英语：dopamine pathway）及藍斑核-去甲肾上腺素系統（LC-NA system）會調節執行功能（認知和行為的功能與管理）、動機、酬賞的感受能力，以及運動機能[117][118][119]。這些傳導通道在ADHD的病理生理學中的功能非常重要[117][119][120][121]。目前也已提議針對ADHD其他可能的神經通道建立更大規模的模型[118][120][121]。

大腦結構 编辑

 
ADHD的左前額葉通常與控制組有顯著不同

在兒童注意力不足過動症患者中，普遍存有一些左側的前額葉皮質在體積上小於平均值的現象[118][122]。注意力不足過動症患者的後頂葉皮層（英语：posterior parietal cortex）也比控制組要薄[118]。其他諸如注意力不足過動症患者的：前額-紋狀體-小腦和前額葉-紋狀體-丘腦迴路也與非注意力不足過動症患者不同[118][120][121]。

ADHD兒童的伏隔核、杏仁核、尾状核、海马体及殼核（英语：putamen）的皮質下體積都比非ADHD兒童的要小[123]。在ADHD青年的大腦中也有發現在左右半大腦中，白質徑的不對稱，認為顳葉整合的中斷可能和ADHD的行為特徵有關[124]。

神經傳導物質的通道 编辑

之前一度認為ADHD患者其多巴胺轉運體的增加是其病理生理學的一部份，不過後來發現這可能是為了適應暴露在興奮劑下的調整[125]，目前的模式包括了中腦皮質素-多巴胺通道（英语：mesocorticolimbic projection）及藍斑核-去甲肾上腺素系統[117][118][119]，用於治療注意力不足過動症的興奮劑，其療效可能是起因於它增進了神經傳導物質在這些系統中的活動[118][119][126]。注意力不足過動症患者腦部中的5-羥色胺能（英语：serotoninergic）通道（與血清素有關）、谷氨酸能（英语：glutamate (neurotransmitter)）通道或是膽鹼能（英语：cholinergic）通道也可能有些異常造成ADHD的症狀[126][127][128]。

執行功能和動機 编辑

注意力不足過動症的症狀起因於某些執行功能上的缺陷（例如專注力、抑制控制及工作记忆等）[60][118][119][129]。執行機能是一整組的認知處理機能，這些機能是要成功選擇及控制行為以達到其設定目標所必需的[60][119][129]。ADHD患者的執行機能障礙也會造成其難於維持整齊、不容易守時、過度延宕、不容易維持注意力、難以保持專注、難以忽略不相干的事物、不容易管理情緒，以及難以記住細節等問題[60][118][119]。ADHD的患者的長期記憶部份似乎沒有受損，長期記憶的缺陷可能是因為工作記憶部份的受損[60][130]。ADHD的兒童及成人中，有30至50%的患者符合執行機能障礙的準則[131]。有項研究指出ADHD患者中，有80%有至少一項的執行機能不足，而沒有ADHD的人只有50%有此情形[132]。由於當人成長時，大腦的成熟速度以及需要的執行機能可能會漸漸的不協調，因此有些注意力不足過動症患者可能直到青少年時期甚至是成年期（特別是成年初期）才開始顯露出注意力不足過動症的症狀[60]。

注意力不足過動症也與患者在兒童時期的缺乏動機相關[133]。患有ADHD的兒童常難以專注在長期的酬賞，比較容易專注在短期酬賞，而且會因為短期酬賞出現衝動的行為[133]。

診斷 编辑

有關兒童ADHD的診斷會依照兒童的行為發展及心智發展進行評估，並且排除藥物、毒品的影響，以及其他疾病及精神問題可以解釋的症狀[56]，一般也會考慮家長以及老師的回饋意見[12]，大多數的診斷都是因為個案的教師首先對於孩子的健康提出關切，經轉介後而成[104]。注意力不足過動症可以視為是在一些所有人都有的連續性心理特徵中，這些人其中有一項或幾項是處於較極端的狀態[134]。對於ADHD的藥物反應結果，無法就此確認診斷或排除診斷。腦部影像的研究還不能在每一個人身上有一致性的結果，因此目前只用於研究用途，不用在診斷上[135]。

在美國會用《精神疾病診斷與統計手冊》第五版（DSM-5）中的準則來進行診斷，歐洲國家則是用《世界通用疾病分類手冊》第十版（ICD-10）的準則，若是由DSM-IV的準則進行診斷，ADHD的人數會是用ICD-10診斷人數的三至四倍[20]。注意力不足過動症分類為神經發展障礙中的一種[11][21]，也屬於紊亂行為症候群（英语：disruptive behavior disorder），同屬於紊亂行為症候群的疾病還有對立反抗症、行為規範障礙、反社会人格障碍[136]。若確認有注意力不足過動症，不代表有神經功能障礙（英语：neurological disorder）[78]。在診斷時，需要一併篩檢其他的情形，包括焦慮、抑鬱、對立反抗症、行為規範障礙、學習及語言障礙等。其他也需要評估的有其他神經發展障礙、抽动综合症及睡眠呼吸暂停等[137]。

用量化腦波（英语：quantitative electroencephalography）（QEEG）診斷超音波是目前正在研究的領域之一，然而迄今為止，腦波經過量化後的數值與ADHD之間的關係仍然不明[138][139]。美國美国食品药品监督管理局已核可用QEEG來評估是否有ADHD[140]，評估的檢查用腦波中Theta波（英语：Theta wave）活動和Beta波（英语：Beta wave）活動的比例來做為診斷的基準；不過至少有五個研究都無法重現前人發現的結果[141][142]。

在診斷和評估ADHD的過程中中，也會用到自我評量表，例如ADHD評量表（英语：ADHD rating scale）及Vanderbilt ADHD診斷評量表（英语：Vanderbilt ADHD diagnostic rating scale）[143]。

診斷與統計手冊（DSM） 编辑

注意力不足過動症的診斷需由有資格的精神醫學專科醫師，依照一系列的準則評估後提出。在美國使用的準則是由美國精神醫學學會所定義，列在精神疾病診斷與統計手冊（DSM）。在DSM的準則中，注意力不足過動症可以分為以下三個子類型[2][41]：

  1. ADHD注意力不足為主型（英语：ADHD predominantly inattentive）（ADHD-PI或ADHD-I），其症狀是容易分心、健忘、作白日夢、不善計劃、很難專心、不容易完成一個任務[3][2]。
  2. ADHD過動為主型（ADHD-PH或ADHD-HI）的症狀是過度的煩躁不安、過動、無法等待、很難一直坐在座位上、不成熟的行為，也會有破壞性的行為[3][2]。
  3. ADHD混合型（ADHD-C），混合了上述二種子類型的症狀[3][2]。

上述子類型是以至少六個月出現注意力不足、過動－衝動及混合型的症狀為判斷基準[144]。這些症狀需要在六到十二歲時就出現，而且在至少二個的環境出現（例如家庭、學校、工作）[3]。而且不符合此兒童年齡該有的情形[3][145]，而且需要有實際證據說明這已造成社交、學校或工作的相關問題[144]。

國際疾病分類（ICD） 编辑

在世界卫生组织的《世界通用疾病分類手冊》第十版（ICD-10）中，過度活躍症（hyperkinetic disorder）的症狀類似DSM-5裡的ADHD。若也有出現（ICD-10所定義的）行為規範障礙情形[50]，則會稱為是「過度活躍行為障礙」（hyperkinetic conduct disorder）。否則，會分類為「活力和注意力的紊亂」（disturbance of activity and attention）、「其他的過度活躍症」（other hyperkinetic disorders）或「過度活躍症，無特殊症狀」（hyperkinetic disorders, unspecified），後者也稱為是「過度活躍症候群」（hyperkinetic syndrome）[50]。

在ICD-11的版本中，此疾病分為在6A05（注意力不足過動症）中，不再使用過度活躍症的名稱[146]。

成人的注意力不足過動症 编辑

主条目：成人注意力不足過動症

成人注意力不足過動症的診斷標準和注意力不足過動症相同，包括症狀需在六歲至十二歲之間就已出現。會針對家長或監護人詢問，當事人還是兒童時的行為或發展情形，也可以作為評估的參考。ADHD的家族史也對診斷有幫助[21]。成人注意力不足過動症的核心症狀和兒童的相同，但其表現的方式會和兒童的不同，例如兒童時的過度身體活動，在成人時會轉變成不安的感覺，以及持續性的心理活動[21]。

估計成人中有2–5%有注意力不足過動症[21]，患有注意力不足過動症的兒童，約有25–50%會持續到成人，其他的兒童在長大後症狀較輕微，甚至沒有症狀[2][21]，據最近的研究，大部份的在成人時沒有接受治療[147]。許多有ADHD，但沒有診斷出來的成年人，其生活可能會比較混亂，也有可能喝酒或是使用非處方的藥品或，這些是他們適應機制的一部份[31]。其他的問題可能包括關係或是工作上的困難、以及較高的犯罪風險[21]。相關的心理健康問題包括：抑鬱、焦虑症及學習障礙[31]。

有些成人ADHD的症狀會和兒童的不同。例如患有ADHD的兒童可能會有過度攀爬奔跑的情形，成年人的症狀可能是感覺無法放鬆休息，或是在社交場合中一直說話。ADHD的成人可能會出現一些尋求感官的行為，以及脾氣不好。也可能會出現像物質濫用或是賭博之類的行為。DSM-IV準則沒有特別為成人ADHD訂定，因此受到批評，而DSM-V有專門針對成人ADHD的準則[21]。

鑑別診斷 编辑

和ADHD症狀有關的其他疾病[148]
抑鬱 焦虑症 躁鬱症
  • 感到無助、低自尊或不快樂
  • 對於喜好事物
    或是日常活動失去興趣
  • 疲勞
  • 睡眠相關問題
  • 很難維持注意力
  • 食欲改變
  • 易怒及敵意
  • 對心理壓力的容忍度低
  • 會想到死亡
  • 無理由的疼痛
亢奮期
抑鬱期
  • 和抑鬱症的症狀相同

注意力不足過動症的症狀，包括情緒及自尊低落、情緒波動以及易怒，類似持续性抑郁症、循環性情感症、躁鬱症及边缘性人格障碍的症狀[21]。有些因為焦虑症、反社會人格症候群、發展性障礙、智能遲滯或的症狀也會注意力不足過動症混淆。而物質濫用造成的中毒及戒斷的症狀也類似ADHD的症狀。有時這些疾病也可能和ADHD一起出現。另外會造成ADHD症狀的疾病有甲状腺功能亢进症、癫痫、鉛中毒、听觉障碍、肝病、睡眠呼吸暂停、药物相互作用、未治療的乳糜泻、頭部外傷[31][73]。

原發性的睡眠障礙可能會影響注意力及行為，而ADHD的症狀也可能會影響睡眠[149]，一般會建議有ADHD的兒童也要定期評估是否有睡眠問題[150]。兒童想睡時會出現的情形從打呵欠、揉眼睛之類，也可能有過動或注意力不集中的情形[151]。阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停也可能會有類似ADHD的症狀[151]。

生物標記研究 编辑

數篇關於ADHD生物標記的回顧性研究指出，ADHD患者的血小板單胺氧化酶表現型（expression）、尿液中的去甲肾上腺素、MHPG（英语：3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylglycol）及苯乙胺濃度都和都與由「非ADHD患者」組成的對照組不同[152][153]檢測上述這些項目可能可以作為是否有ADHD的診斷生理標記（diagnostic biomarkers），用來診斷ADHD，不過還需要更多研究與實驗來確立這方面利用的可行性[153]。ADHD患者在尿液及血浆中的苯乙胺濃度比對照組要低，已知苯丙胺和哌甲酯會增加苯乙胺在體內的合成。特別是那些對苯丙胺和哌甲酯有反應的ADHD患者[85][152][153]。ADHD患者尿液中偏低的苯乙胺濃度與其不專心的症狀相關[153]。當今的腦波檢測（EEG）還不夠精準，還無法用來當作診斷依據[154]。

治療 编辑

主条目：注意力不足過動症的治療

注意力不足過動症的治療方式包括心理治療、行為治療及藥物，也有可能是用幾種方式一起進行。治療對病症會有長期的改善，但是無法完全根除病症的影響[155]。藥物包括有興奮劑、阿托莫西汀、腎上腺素受體α2（英语：alpha-2 adrenergic receptor）拮抗劑，有時也會包括抗抑鬱藥物[53][126]。若時無法專注在長期獎勵上的人，有許多的正增强方式可以提昇其工作表現[133]。ADHD藥物中的興奮劑也可以提昇患者的毅力及工作表現[118][133]。

行為治療 编辑

有關行為治療在ADHD上的應用，有許多良好的實證，若是針對學齡前，或是症狀輕微的病患，一般會建議用行為治療為第一線的療法[156][157]。心理療法包括有心理教育、行為治療、认知行为疗法（CBT）、人際取向心理治療、家庭治療（英语：family therapy）、學校介入、社交技巧訓練、行為方面的同儕介入、機構培訓[158]、父母管理訓練[78]及神經反饋（英语：neurofeedback）訓練[159]。父母管理訓練可以改善包括反對行為以及不合常規行為在內的一些行為問題[160]。目前還不清楚神經反饋訓練是否有效[161]。

有關家庭治療的效果，目前還很少足夠品質的證據可以佐證。目前證據認為家庭治療的效果類似群體照顧（community care），效果比安慰劑要好[162]。有許多注意力不足過動症支持組織可以提供相關資訊，並且協助家庭適應ADHD的情形[163]。

有關社交技巧的訓練、行為調整以及藥物的對病患的好處可能有限。要減少後續心理及精神問題（例如重度抑郁症、犯罪、學校學習失敗、物質使用疾患）的主要因素是和沒有從事偏差行為的人建立友誼[164]。

規律的體能鍛煉，特別是有氧运动，對於患有ADHD的兒童及成人而言也是有效的副加療法（英语：adjunct therapy），特別是配合興奮劑藥物治療時更是如此，不過針對改善症狀，最理想的運動種類及強度還不清楚[165][166][167]。長期規律有氧運動對ADHD患者的好處是提昇行為及運動能力、提昇管控功能（包括專注、抑制控制、計劃等）、較快的資訊處理速度，記憶力也會比較好[165][166][167]。家長及教師針對ADHD兒童規律有氧运动對行為及以社交-情緒上的改善有：全身整體機能較佳、減少ADHD症狀、自尊感較好、減少焦慮及抑鬱的程度、較少身體症狀、課業成績及教室行為較佳，社交行為也有改善[165]。若在有使用興奮劑治療時進行運動，會增加興奮劑藥物對執行功能的影響[165]，一般認為運動的短期效果是因為運動時大腦突触多巴胺和去甲腎上腺素濃度的增加所造成[165]。

藥物 编辑

針對注意力不足過動症，可以用中樞神經刺激劑（也稱為兴奋剂）藥物進行治療[168][169][已过时]，對於症狀至少會有一些效果，短期而言，約有80%會有效果[34][170][169]。家長及教師反應哌甲酯比較可以改善其症狀[170][34][171]，中樞神經刺激劑也可以減少ADHD兒童意外事故的風險[172]。針對ADHD的中樞神經刺激劑藥物除了哌甲酯外，還有苯丙胺、甲基苯丙胺等。

針對ADHD的非中樞神經刺激劑藥物有許多種，包括阿托莫西汀、安非他酮、胍法辛及可乐定，這些可以作為主要藥物治療，或是配合中樞神經刺激劑藥物一起使用[168][173]。目前有關各藥物之間的比較，還沒有說服力足夠的研究結果可以佐證，不過在副作用上似乎差不多[174]。中樞神經刺激劑藥物比較可以提昇課業表現，阿托莫西汀則無此效果[175]。阿托莫西汀比較不會有成癮問題，因此若有娛樂性藥物或是強迫性藥物使用風險的人，比較建議使用阿托莫西汀[21]。有關藥物對社交行為上的影響，目前的資料也還不充份[174]。截至2015年6月年 (2015年6月-Missing required parameter 1=month!)，還沒有完全確定ADHD藥物的長期影響[176][177]。核磁共振成像 研究推測長期用苯丙胺或哌甲酯治療，會減少因為ADHD造成的大腦功能及結構異常[178][179][180]。2018年的文獻回顧發現若考慮短期效果，哌甲酯對兒童最有效，苯丙胺對成人最有效[181]。

什麼情形要用胍法辛治療會依國家而不同，英國國家健康照護專業組織（英语：National Institute for Health and Care Excellence）（NICE）針對成人是第一線藥物，若針對兒童，只建議在病情嚴重時才使用，而大部份美國的醫學指南會建議可以針對各年齡層使用[26]。針對學齡前的兒童，一般不建議用藥物治療[78][182]。若治療用的中樞神經刺激劑劑量不足，可能會有沒有藥效的情形[183]，這尤其常出現在青少年及成人身上，因為核可的劑量是針對學齡兒童的，因此有些醫療人員會依體重或是依其他因素給藥[184][185][186]

一般而言，在正常治療劑量的哌甲酯及中樞神經刺激劑是安全的，不過有其副作用以及禁忌症[168]。若哌甲酯給兒童及青少年使用，有研究發現這和一些嚴重或不嚴重的有害副作用有關，不過證據品質還不充份[187]。若針對兒童開立這類藥物，需仔細的監測兒童的情形[187]。若ADHD的中樞神經刺激劑嚴重過量，可能會和興奮性精神病（英语：stimulant psychosis）或是狂躁的症狀[188]。若是治療用的劑量，出現類似情形的機率非常低，只有0.1%，會在開始用中樞神經刺激劑藥物治療後的前幾週出現[188][189][190]，若也使用抗精神病药，可以有效緩解急性苯丙胺精神病的症狀[188]，若長期治療，需要定期的監測[191]。興奮劑的藥物治療需要定期停藥，評估是否還需要用藥、減少發育遲緩的情形，並且減低抗藥性[192][193]。若是長期使用超過ADHD治療劑量的興奮劑藥物濫用，一般會和成瘾及物質依賴有關[194][195]。不過未治療的ADHD，會提高物質濫用以及行為規範障礙的風險[194]。興奮劑藥物的使用，可能可以降低風險，但也有可能沒有此效果[21][176][194]。還不清楚懷孕時服用這些藥物是否安全[196]。

飲食 编辑

飲食的調整可能對少部份的ADHD兒童有幫助[197]一份2013年的統合分析針對有ADHD症狀，而且有補充游離脂肪酸或是減少食用有人工色素食品的兒童的相關研究發現，只有不到三分之一的兒童在症狀上有改善[106]。這方面的助益有可能只是對有食物敏感的兒童有幫助，也有可能是因為這些兒童同時也在接受ADHD的治療[106]。這些已發表的文獻也發現目前已有的證據無法支持減少食用特定食物來治療ADHD的療法[106]。2014年發表的文獻也發現排除飲食在治療ADHD上的成效有限[109]。另一篇2016年文獻回顧指出，根據研究結果，「無麩質飲食在未來成為ADHD的標準療法」之機率是微乎其微[73]。

2017的文獻回顧指出有一些排除飲食的方式對於非常小，無法用藥的幼童，以及對藥物沒有反應的患者可能有用，不過不鼓勵用補充游離脂肪酸或是減少食用有人工色素食品作為ADHD的正規治療方式[198] 。長期鐵、鎂及碘等礦物質的不足可能可以讓ADHD的症狀加劇[199]，也有少數證據指出組織內锌含量過低和ADHD有關[200]。不過除非證實有鋅不足（英语：zinc deficiency）的情形（除了開發中國家外，很少有鋅不足的情形），一般不建議用鋅補充劑（英语：zinc supplementation）治療[201]。不過若鋅礦物質和苯丙胺類藥物同時使用的話，可以減低苯丙胺藥物的最小有效劑量，也就是可以服用較少的藥物而達到相同的效果[202]。另有證據指出Ω-3脂肪酸對於病情會有些許的改，不過不建議取代醫學治療[203][204]。

預後 编辑

孩童的ADHD有30–50%的機率持續到其成人時期[22]，那些持續被ADHD影響的成人可能會在成長過程中發展出一些技巧，彌補部分ADHD的症狀[31]。有ADHD的兒童與青少年相較於其他沒有ADHD的兒童與青少年，其發生意外受傷等事故的風險較高[172]。ADHD藥物能改善患者在生活中許多方面的功能性不足，也可以提昇生活品質（英语：Quality of life (healthcare)）（例如減少意外受傷的風險），不過[205]。

流行病學 编辑

主条目：注意力不足過動症的流行病學

注意力不足過動症是童年階段最常見的發育疾患[206]。根據2015年發表的研究，依照DSM-III, DSM-III-R及DSM-IV的標準，國際ADHD流行率中位數，兒童為6-8%[207][15]。若使用ICD-10的標準，同年齡兒童的流行率則為1–2% [16]。

美國的成人注意力不足過動症的流行率為4-5%[208][209]。成人ADHD在台灣的流行率推估為3-4%[210]:24-25。ADHD是全球性的[211][212]。世界各地ADHD流行率的差異主要是因為世界各地使用的ADHD診斷方法不同[213]。若使用相同的診斷方法，則世界各地所得出的ADHD流行率將介於伯仲之間[214]。

在亞洲，台灣[215]、日本[216]、韓國[217]、越南[218]、中國大陸[219]、港澳[220][221]等地的未成年之ADHD流行率均介於6-8%之間。

英國和美國的ADHD診斷率和治療率自1970年代起逐年增加至今[222]。學界的共識認為這個現象是因為診斷方法的變遷[222]以及人們逐漸願意利用藥物來治療ADHD所致[16]，並非ADHD的流行率真的增加了[213][223]。學界共識認為，2013年起，DSM的版本從DSM 4TR 推進到 DSM 5 會使得ADHD的診斷數增加（特別是成人注意力不足過動症的診斷數） [224]。

歷史及社會文化 编辑

 
注意力不足過動症診斷準則、盛行率及治療的時間軸

在人類歷史中很早就有出現過動的情形。1798年時蘇格蘭醫師亞歷山大·克里奇頓（英语：Alexander Crichton）在其著作《對精神紊亂的性質和起源的探究》（An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement）中提到了精神不安[225][226][页码请求]。1902年，英國兒科醫生George Still（英语：George Frederic Still）首次描述一項與注意力不足過動症近似的病徵，出現在一系列給倫敦皇家內科醫學院的教材中[227][222]。他也注意到先天及後天因素都可能會影響此疾病[228]。

Tredgold提出了腦損傷和行為問題或是學習問題之間的關聯性，這種關聯可以由1917年至1928年的昏睡性腦炎流行病得到驗證[228][229][230]。

不同的時期，描述注意力不足過動症的名詞也有所不同：在1952年的DSM-I稱為微細腦功能失常（minimal brain dysfunction），在1968年的DSM-II則稱為兒童活动亢进（hyperkinetic reaction of childhood），在1980年的DSM-III稱為「注意力不足症，可能伴隨過動，也可能沒有」（attention-deficit disorder (ADD) with or without hyperactivity）[222]。在1987年的DSM-III-R更名為注意力不足過動症，，在1994年的DSM-IV將注意力不足過動症分為注意力散渙主導型（英语：Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive）、過動—衝動型以及混合型[231]。在2013年的DSM-5仍保留這三個名稱[2]。其他的名詞有在1930年代使用的微細腦創傷（minimal brain damage）[232]。

1934年時，Benzedrine是第一個美國許可使用，治療注意力不足過動症的苯丙胺藥物[233]哌甲酯在1950年代開始使用，而对映异构的右旋苯丙胺則是在1970年代開始使用[222]。1937年時，興奮劑開始用在注意力不足過動症的治療[234]。Charles Bradley給行為障礙的兒童服用Benzedrine，發現可以改善行為，也提昇其課業表現[235][236]。

到1990年時，許多研究「隱約提到ADHD兒童其前額-紋狀體網路較小」[237]，同一時期識別出ADHD在遺傳上的特點，也認為ADHD是持續性、長期的疾病，會從兒童持續到成人時期[238]。ADHD分為目前三類的原因是因為Lahey和其同事完成的現場實驗[2][239]。

在2004年時，美國參議院提出了注意力不足過動症意識之日（ADHD Awareness Day），後來演變成每年十月為注意力不足過動症意識之月（ADHD Awareness Month）[240][241]。

爭議 编辑

主条目：注意力不足過動症的爭議

自1970年代開始，注意力不足過動症疾病本身、其診斷及醫療在歐美就已經是有爭議性的議題[33][34][242]。爭議和臨床醫師、教師、政策訂定者、家長及媒體有關。有的觀點認為注意力不足過動症是正常行為的範圍內[56][243]，也有些是假定注意力不足過動症屬於遺傳疾病[244]。其他有關注意力不足過動症的爭議包括是否可以在合理劑量範圍內，對兒童用興奮劑藥物進行治療[34][245]、診斷的方式、以及過度診斷（英语：overdiagnosis）的可能性[245]。英國國家健康照護專業組織（英语：National Institute for Health and Care Excellence）（NICE）在2009年發表聲明，聲明中有提及目前存在的爭議，也表示：目前的治療及診斷方式都是依照學術文獻中的主流學術觀點為基礎[134]。2014年時，基思·康納斯（早期推動美國大眾認知注意力不足過動症的人士之一）在《紐約時報》提出他認為注意力不足過動症在美國有過度診斷的情形[246]，不過同年有一篇經過同儕審查的醫學回顧性文獻，表明ADHD在美國成人族群中其實有診斷不足（診斷率低於實際的盛行率）的情形[23]。

ADHD的診斷率在各國家、同一國家的不同地區、種族及族群之間有著相當的差異，因此除了ADHD的盛行率外，可能也有其他因素影響ADHD的診斷[247]。部份社會學家認為ADHD是將「不常見且不被廣泛接受的行為」醫療化的例子，也就是將一些以往認為和醫學無關的學校表現問題，用醫療的方式來處理[33][104]。在美國，大部份的醫療人員認為ADHD是真正的疾病，至少在症狀較明顯的人身上是這樣沒錯[104]。而醫療人員之間仍存在的爭議主要是在那些較多數，症狀較輕微的病症的診斷及治療方式[36][248][249]。有些宗教對治療方式也會有不同的認知，例如公民人權委員會（山達基在1969年成立的反精神醫學團體）曾在1980年代提出反對使用利他能的運動，目前該組織的立場仍是不主張用中樞神經刺激劑處方治療ADHD[250]

參考資料 编辑

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. National Institute of Mental Health. 2016-03 [2016-03-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-07-23）. 
  2. ^ 2.00 2.01 2.02 2.03 2.04 2.05 2.06 2.07 2.08 2.09 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 5th. Arlington: American Psychiatric Publishing. 2013: 59–65. ISBN 978-0-89042-555-8. 
  3. ^ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Symptoms and Diagnosis. Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Division of Human Development, National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2014-09-29 [2014-11-03]. （原始内容存档于2014-11-07  ）. 
  4. ^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 NIMH. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (Easy-to-Read). National Institute of Mental Health. 2013 [17 April 2016]. （原始内容存档于14 April 2016）. 
  5. ^ 5.0 5.1 Kooij, J.J.S.; Bijlenga, D. Updated European Consensus Statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD. European Psychiatry. 2019-02, 56: 14–34. PMID 30453134. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2018.11.001. 
  6. ^ Ferri FF. Ferri's differential diagnosis : a practical guide to the differential diagnosis of symptoms, signs, and clinical disorders 2nd. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier/Mosby. 2010: Chapter A. ISBN 978-0323076999. 
  7. ^ Coghill DR, Banaschewski T, Soutullo C, Cottingham MG, Zuddas A. Systematic review of quality of life and functional outcomes in randomized placebo-controlled studies of medications for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2017-11, 26 (11): 1283–1307. PMC 5656703  . PMID 28429134. doi:10.1007/s00787-017-0986-y. 
  8. ^ Jain R, Katic A. Current and Investigational Medication Delivery Systems for Treating Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2016-08, 18 (4). PMID 27828696. doi:10.4088/PCC.16r01979. 
  9. ^ 9.0 9.1 GBD 2015 Disease and Injury Incidence and Prevalence Collaborators. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 310 diseases and injuries, 1990–2015: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2015. Lancet. 016-10, 388 (10053): 1545–1602. PMC 5055577  . PMID 27733282. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31678-6. 
  10. ^ Sroubek A, Kelly M, Li X. Inattentiveness in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuroscience Bulletin. 2013-02, 29 (1): 103–10. PMC 4440572  . PMID 23299717. doi:10.1007/s12264-012-1295-6. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Caroline SC (编). Encyclopedia of Cross-Cultural School Psychology. Springer Science & Business Media. 2010: 133. ISBN 9780387717982. 
  12. ^ 12.0 12.1 12.2 Dulcan MK, Lake M. Axis I Disorders Usually First Diagnosed in Infancy, Childhood or Adolescence: Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders  . Concise Guide to Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 4th illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2011: 34. ISBN 978-1-58562-416-4 –通过Google Books. 
  13. ^ Erskine HE, Norman RE, Ferrari AJ, Chan GC, Copeland WE, Whiteford HA, Scott JG. Long-Term Outcomes of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Conduct Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2016-10, 55 (10): 841–50. PMID 27663939. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.06.016. 
  14. ^ 14.0 14.1 14.2 Walitza S, Drechsler R, Ball J. [The school child with ADHD] [The school child with ADHD]. Therapeutische Umschau. Revue Therapeutique. 2012-08, 69 (8): 467–73. PMID 22851461. doi:10.1024/0040-5930/a000316 （德语）. 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Willcutt EG. The prevalence of DSM-IV attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a meta-analytic review. Neurotherapeutics. 2012-07, 9 (3): 490–9. PMC 3441936  . PMID 22976615. doi:10.1007/s13311-012-0135-8. 
  16. ^ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Cowen P, Harrison P, Burns T. Drugs and other physical treatments. Shorter Oxford Textbook of Psychiatry 6th. Oxford University Press. 2012: 546. ISBN 978-0-19-960561-3 –通过Google Books. 
  17. ^ Faraone SV. Ch. 25: Epidemiology of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Tsuang MT, Tohen M, Jones P (编). Textbook of Psychiatric Epidemiology 3rd. John Wiley & Sons. 2011: 450. ISBN 9780470977408. 
  18. ^ Crawford, Nicole. ADHD: a women's issue. Monitor on Psychology. 2003-02, 34 (2): 28. （原始内容存档于2017-04-09）. 
  19. ^ Emond V, Joyal C, Poissant H. [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)] [Structural and functional neuroanatomy of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)]. L'Encephale. 2009-04, 35 (2): 107–14. PMID 19393378. doi:10.1016/j.encep.2008.01.005 （法语）. 
  20. ^ 20.0 20.1 20.2 Singh I. Beyond polemics: science and ethics of ADHD. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 2008-12, 9 (12): 957–64. PMID 19020513. doi:10.1038/nrn2514. 
  21. ^ 21.00 21.01 21.02 21.03 21.04 21.05 21.06 21.07 21.08 21.09 21.10 21.11 21.12 21.13 21.14 Kooij SJ, Bejerot S, Blackwell A, Caci H, Casas-Brugué M, Carpentier PJ, et al. European consensus statement on diagnosis and treatment of adult ADHD: The European Network Adult ADHD. BMC Psychiatry. 2010-09, 10: 67. PMC 2942810  . PMID 20815868. doi:10.1186/1471-244X-10-67. 
  22. ^ 22.0 22.1 Bálint S, Czobor P, Mészáros A, Simon V, Bitter I. [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: a literature review] [Neuropsychological impairments in adult attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A literature review]. Psychiatria Hungarica. 2008, 23 (5): 324–35. PMID 19129549 （Hungarian）. 
  23. ^ 23.0 23.1 Ginsberg Y, Quintero J, Anand E, Casillas M, Upadhyaya HP. Underdiagnosis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adult patients: a review of the literature. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2014, 16 (3). PMC 4195639  . PMID 25317367. doi:10.4088/PCC.13r01600. Reports indicate that ADHD affects 2.5%–5% of adults in the general population,5–8 compared with 5%–7% of children.9,10 ... However, fewer than 20% of adults with ADHD are currently diagnosed and/or treated by psychiatrists.7,15,16 
  24. ^ National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder : diagnosis and management of ADHD in children, young people, and adults. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (Great Britain), National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Great Britain), British Psychological Society., Royal College of Psychiatrists. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 17. ISBN 9781854334718. OCLC 244314955. PMID 22420012. 
  25. ^ 25.0 25.1 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Pharmacological Treatment. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 303–307. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  26. ^ 26.0 26.1 Canadian ADHD Practice Guidelines (PDF). Canadian ADHD Alliance. [2011-02-04]. 
  27. ^ 27.0 27.1 Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Recommendations. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2015-06-24 [2015-07-13]. （原始内容存档于2015-07-07）. 
  28. ^ NIMH » The Multimodal Treatment of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Study (MTA):Questions and Answers. NIMH » Home. [2019-01-01]. Why were the MTA medication treatments more effective than community treatments that also usually included medication? Answer: There were substantial differences in quality and intensity between the study-provided medication treatments and those provided in the community care group. 
  29. ^ Huang YS, Tsai MH. Long-term outcomes with medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: current status of knowledge. CNS Drugs. 2011-07, 25 (7): 539–54. PMID 21699268. doi:10.2165/11589380-000000000-00000. 
  30. ^ Arnold LE, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Kahle J, et al. Effect of treatment modality on long-term outcomes in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review. PLOS One. 2015-02, 10 (2): e0116407. PMC 4340791  . PMID 25714373. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0116407. 
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 31.2 31.3 31.4 Gentile JP, Atiq R, Gillig PM. Adult ADHD: Diagnosis, Differential Diagnosis, and Medication Management. Psychiatry. 2006-08, 3 (8): 25–30. PMC 2957278  . PMID 20963192. likelihood that the adult with ADHD has developed coping mechanisms to compensate for his or her impairment 
  32. ^ Lange KW, Reichl S, Lange KM, Tucha L, Tucha O. The history of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. 2010-12, 2 (4): 241–55. PMC 3000907  . PMID 21258430. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0045-8. 
  33. ^ 33.0 33.1 33.2 Parrillo VN. Encyclopedia of Social Problems. SAGE. 2008: 63 [2009-05-02]. ISBN 9781412941655. 
  34. ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 34.4 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater J. ADHD and the rise in stimulant use among children. Harvard Review of Psychiatry. 2008, 16 (3): 151–66. PMID 18569037. doi:10.1080/10673220802167782. 
  35. ^ Sim MG, Hulse G, Khong E. When the child with ADHD grows up (PDF). Australian Family Physician. 2004-08, 33 (8): 615–8. PMID 15373378. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2015-09-24）. 
  36. ^ 36.0 36.1 Silver LB. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder 3rd. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004: 4–7. ISBN 978-1-58562-131-6. 
  37. ^ Schonwald A, Lechner E. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: complexities and controversies. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. 2006-04, 18 (2): 189–95. PMID 16601502. doi:10.1097/01.mop.0000193302.70882.70. 
  38. ^ Weiss LG. WISC-IV clinical use and interpretation scientist-practitioner perspectives 1st. Amsterdam: Elsevier Academic Press. 2005: 237. ISBN 978-0-12-564931-5. 
  39. ^ ADHD: The Diagnostic Criteria. PBS. Frontline. [2016-03-05]. （原始内容存档于2016-04-20）. 
  40. ^ 陳錦宏. 台灣心動家族兒童青少年關懷協會理事長陳錦宏醫師 敬上. Tc-adhd.com. 2015-04-18 [2016-12-09]. （原始内容存档于2018-02-24） （中文（臺灣））. 理事長的話：在這場演講，協會提出第一個主張，我們主張將ADHD原本「過動兒」的中文稱呼改為「心動兒」，因為ADHD包含沒有過動症狀的不專心兒童，「過動兒」常令人混淆，另外過動兒文字本身即包含負面意涵，而心動兒無此字義上的問題。 
  41. ^ 41.0 41.1 ADHD: Symptoms and Diagnosis. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2017). 31 August 2017. 
  42. ^ 42.0 42.1 Dobie C. Diagnosis and management of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in primary care for school-age children and adolescents: 79. 2012 [10 October 2012]. （原始内容存档于1 March 2013）. 
  43. ^ 43.0 43.1 CDC, Facts About ADHD, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016-01-06 [2016-03-20], （原始内容存档于22016-03-22） 
  44. ^ 44.0 44.1 Ramsay JR. Cognitive behavioral therapy for adult ADHD. Routledge. 2007: 4, 25–26. ISBN 978-0-415-95501-0. 
  45. ^ 45.0 45.1 National Institute of Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). National Institutes of Health. 2008. （原始内容存档于2013-01-19）. 
  46. ^ Gershon J. A meta-analytic review of gender differences in ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2002-01, 5 (3): 143–54. PMID 11911007. doi:10.1177/108705470200500302. 
  47. ^ Coleman WL. Social competence and friendship formation in adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Adolescent Medicine. August 2008, 19 (2): 278–99, x. PMID 18822833. 
  48. ^ ADHD Anger Management Directory. Webmd.com. [2014-01-17]. （原始内容存档于5 November 2013）. 
  49. ^ Racine MB, Majnemer A, Shevell M, Snider L. Handwriting performance in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. April 2008, 23 (4): 399–406. PMID 18401033. doi:10.1177/0883073807309244. 
  50. ^ 50.0 50.1 50.2 F90 Hyperkinetic disorders, International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems 10th Revision, World Health Organisation, 2010 [2 November 2014], （原始内容存档于2 November 2014） 
  51. ^ Bellani M, Moretti A, Perlini C, Brambilla P. Language disturbances in ADHD. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences. December 2011, 20 (4): 311–5. PMID 22201208. doi:10.1017/S2045796011000527. 
  52. ^ 52.0 52.1 52.2 ADHD Symptoms. nhs.uk. 20 October 2017 [15 May 2018]. 
  53. ^ 53.0 53.1 53.2 Wilens TE, Spencer TJ. Understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder from childhood to adulthood. Postgraduate Medicine. September 2010, 122 (5): 97–109. PMC 3724232  . PMID 20861593. doi:10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2206. 
  54. ^ 54.0 54.1 Bailey, Eileen. ADHD and Learning Disabilities: How can you help your child cope with ADHD and subsequent Learning Difficulties? There is a way.. Remedy Health Media, LLC. [15 November 2013]. （原始内容存档于3 December 2013）. 
  55. ^ 55.0 55.1 Krull, KR. Evaluation and diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children . Uptodate. Wolters Kluwer Health. 5 December 2007 [12 September 2008]. （原始内容存档于5 June 2009）. 
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 56.2 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 18–26, 38. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  57. ^ Wilens TE, Morrison NR. The intersection of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and substance abuse. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. July 2011, 24 (4): 280–5. PMC 3435098  . PMID 21483267. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e328345c956. 
  58. ^ Corkum P, Davidson F, Macpherson M. A framework for the assessment and treatment of sleep problems in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatric Clinics of North America. June 2011, 58 (3): 667–83. PMID 21600348. doi:10.1016/j.pcl.2011.03.004. 
  59. ^ Tsai MH, Huang YS. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and sleep disorders in children. The Medical Clinics of North America. May 2010, 94 (3): 615–32. PMID 20451036. doi:10.1016/j.mcna.2010.03.008. 
  60. ^ 60.0 60.1 60.2 60.3 60.4 60.5 Brown TE. ADD/ADHD and Impaired Executive Function in Clinical Practice. Current Psychiatry Reports. October 2008, 10 (5): 407–11. PMID 18803914. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0065-7. 
  61. ^ Bendz LM, Scates AC. Melatonin treatment for insomnia in pediatric patients with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 2010-01, 44 (1): 185–91. PMID 20028959. doi:10.1345/aph.1M365. 
  62. ^ McBurnett K, Pfiffner LJ. Treatment of aggressive ADHD in children and adolescents: conceptualization and treatment of comorbid behavior disorders. Postgraduate Medicine. November 2009, 121 (6): 158–65. PMID 19940426. doi:10.3810/pgm.2009.11.2084. 
  63. ^ Hofvander B, Ossowski D, Lundström S, Anckarsäter H. Continuity of aggressive antisocial behavior from childhood to adulthood: The question of phenotype definition (PDF). International Journal of Law and Psychiatry. 2009, 32 (4): 224–34. PMID 19428109. doi:10.1016/j.ijlp.2009.04.004. 
  64. ^ Rubia K. "Cool" inferior frontostriatal dysfunction in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder versus "hot" ventromedial orbitofrontal-limbic dysfunction in conduct disorder: a review. Biological Psychiatry. June 2011, 69 (12): e69–87. PMID 21094938. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.023. 
  65. ^ Weinberg WA, Brumback RA. Primary disorder of vigilance: a novel explanation of inattentiveness, daydreaming, boredom, restlessness, and sleepiness. The Journal of Pediatrics. May 1990, 116 (5): 720–5. PMID 2329420. doi:10.1016/s0022-3476(05)82654-x. 
  66. ^ Barkley RA. Sluggish cognitive tempo (concentration deficit disorder?): current status, future directions, and a plea to change the name (PDF). Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 2014-01, 42 (1): 117–25. PMID 24234590. doi:10.1007/s10802-013-9824-y. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-08-09）. 
  67. ^ Baud P, Perroud N, Aubry JM. [Bipolar disorder and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults: differential diagnosis or comorbidity]. Revue Medicale Suisse. June 2011, 7 (297): 1219–22. PMID 21717696 （French）. 
  68. ^ Merino-Andreu M. [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children] [Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and restless legs syndrome in children]. Revista de Neurologia. March 2011,. 52 Suppl 1: S85–95. PMID 21365608 （Spanish）. 
  69. ^ Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL. Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment. Sleep Medicine. August 2010, 11 (7): 643–51. PMID 20620105. doi:10.1016/j.sleep.2009.11.014. 
  70. ^ Karroum E, Konofal E, Arnulf I. [Restless-legs syndrome]. Revue Neurologique. 2008, 164 (8–9): 701–21. PMID 18656214. doi:10.1016/j.neurol.2008.06.006 （French）. 
  71. ^ Shreeram S, He JP, Kalaydjian A, Brothers S, Merikangas KR. Prevalence of enuresis and its association with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder among U.S. children: results from a nationally representative study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 2009-01, 48 (1): 35–41. PMC 2794242  . PMID 19096296. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318190045c. 
  72. ^ Instanes JT, Klungsøyr K, Halmøy A, Fasmer OB, Haavik J. Adult ADHD and Comorbid Somatic Disease: A Systematic Literature Review. Journal of Attention Disorders (Systematic Review). February 2018, 22 (3): 203–228. PMC 5987989  . PMID 27664125. doi:10.1177/1087054716669589. （原始内容存档于2017-02-07）.  
  73. ^ 73.0 73.1 73.2 Ertürk E, Wouters S, Imeraj L, Lampo A. Association of ADHD and Celiac Disease: What Is the Evidence? A Systematic Review of the Literature. Journal of Attention Disorders (Review). January 2016: 108705471561149. PMID 26825336. doi:10.1177/1087054715611493. Up till now, there is no conclusive evidence for a relationship between ADHD and CD. Therefore, it is not advised to perform routine screening of CD when assessing ADHD (and vice versa) or to implement GFD as a standard treatment in ADHD. Nevertheless, the possibility of untreated CD predisposing to ADHD-like behavior should be kept in mind. ... It is possible that in untreated patients with CD, neurologic symptoms such as chronic fatigue, inattention, pain, and headache could predispose patients to ADHD-like behavior (mainly symptoms of inattentive type), which may be alleviated after GFD treatment. (CD: celiac disease; GFD: gluten-free diet) 
  74. ^ 74.0 74.1 Frazier TW, Demaree HA, Youngstrom EA. Meta-analysis of intellectual and neuropsychological test performance in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Neuropsychology. July 2004, 18 (3): 543–55. PMID 15291732. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.18.3.543. 
  75. ^ Bridgett DJ, Walker ME. Intellectual functioning in adults with ADHD: a meta-analytic examination of full scale IQ differences between adults with and without ADHD. Psychological Assessment. March 2006, 18 (1): 1–14. PMID 16594807. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.18.1.1. 
  76. ^ 76.0 76.1 76.2 Millichap JG. Chapter 2: Causative Factors. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. New York, NY: Springer Science. 2010: 26. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5 (不活跃 2018-11-21). 
  77. ^ 77.0 77.1 Thapar A, Cooper M, Eyre O, Langley K. What have we learnt about the causes of ADHD?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 2013-01, 54 (1): 3–16. PMC 3572580  . PMID 22963644. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02611.x. 
  78. ^ 78.0 78.1 78.2 78.3 78.4 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于2016-01-13） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  79. ^ Psychiatric GWAS Consortium: ADHD Subgroup, Neale BM, Medland SE, Ripke S, Asherson P, Franke B, et al. Meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. September 2010, 49 (9): 884–97. PMC 2928252  . PMID 20732625. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2010.06.008. 
  80. ^ Burt SA. Rethinking environmental contributions to child and adolescent psychopathology: a meta-analysis of shared environmental influences. Psychological Bulletin. July 2009, 135 (4): 608–37. PMID 19586164. doi:10.1037/a0015702. 
  81. ^ Nolen-Hoeksema S. Abnormal Psychology Sixth. 2013: 267. ISBN 978-0-07-803538-8. 
  82. ^ Franke B, Faraone SV, Asherson P, Buitelaar J, Bau CH, Ramos-Quiroga JA, et al. The genetics of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults, a review. Molecular Psychiatry. October 2012, 17 (10): 960–87. PMC 3449233  . PMID 22105624. doi:10.1038/mp.2011.138. 
  83. ^ 83.0 83.1 Gizer IR, Ficks C, Waldman ID. Candidate gene studies of ADHD: a meta-analytic review. Human Genetics. July 2009, 126 (1): 51–90. PMID 19506906. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0694-x. 
  84. ^ 84.0 84.1 84.2 Kebir O, Tabbane K, Sengupta S, Joober R. Candidate genes and neuropsychological phenotypes in children with ADHD: review of association studies. Journal of Psychiatry & Neuroscience. March 2009, 34 (2): 88–101. PMC 2647566  . PMID 19270759. 
  85. ^ 85.0 85.1 Berry MD. The potential of trace amines and their receptors for treating neurological and psychiatric diseases. Reviews on Recent Clinical Trials. January 2007, 2 (1): 3–19. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.329.563  . PMID 18473983. doi:10.2174/157488707779318107. （原始内容存档于2017-02-01）. Although there is little direct evidence, changes in trace amines, in particular PE, have been identified as a possible factor for the onset of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). … Further, amphetamines, which have clinical utility in ADHD, are good ligands at trace amine receptors. Of possible relevance in this aspect is modafanil, which has shown beneficial effects in ADHD patients and has been reported to enhance the activity of PE at TAAR1. Conversely, methylphenidate, …showed poor efficacy at the TAAR1 receptor. In this respect it is worth noting that the enhancement of functioning at TAAR1 seen with modafanil was not a result of a direct interaction with TAAR1. 
  86. ^ Sotnikova TD, Caron MG, Gainetdinov RR. Trace amine-associated receptors as emerging therapeutic targets. Molecular Pharmacology. August 2009, 76 (2): 229–35. PMC 2713119  . PMID 19389919. doi:10.1124/mol.109.055970. 
  87. ^ Arcos-Burgos M, Muenke M. Toward a better understanding of ADHD: LPHN3 gene variants and the susceptibility to develop ADHD. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders. November 2010, 2 (3): 139–47. PMC 3280610  . PMID 21432600. doi:10.1007/s12402-010-0030-2. 
  88. ^ Nikolaidis A, Gray JR. ADHD and the DRD4 exon III 7-repeat polymorphism: an international meta-analysis. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience. June 2010, 5 (2–3): 188–93. PMC 2894686  . PMID 20019071. doi:10.1093/scan/nsp049. 
  89. ^ 89.0 89.1 89.2 Glover V. Annual Research Review: Prenatal stress and the origins of psychopathology: an evolutionary perspective. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. April 2011, 52 (4): 356–67. PMID 21250994. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02371.x. 
  90. ^ 90.0 90.1 90.2 Williams J, Taylor E. The evolution of hyperactivity, impulsivity and cognitive diversity. Journal of the Royal Society, Interface. June 2006, 3 (8): 399–413. PMC 1578754  . PMID 16849269. doi:10.1098/rsif.2005.0102. 
  91. ^ 91.0 91.1 Cardo E, Nevot A, Redondo M, Melero A, de Azua B, García-De la Banda G, Servera M. [Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: a pattern of evolution?] [Attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity: a pattern of evolution?]. Revista de Neurologia. March 2010,. 50 Suppl 3: S143–7. PMID 20200842 （Spanish）. 
  92. ^ Adriani W, Zoratto F, Laviola G. Brain Processes in Discounting: Consequences of Adolescent Methylphenidate Exposure. Stanford C, Tannock R (编). Behavioral neuroscience of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its treatment. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. Volume 9. New York: Springer. 2012-01-13: 132–134. ISBN 978-3-642-24611-1. 
  93. ^ Ekstein S, Glick B, Weill M, Kay B, Berger I. Down syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Journal of Child Neurology. 2011-10, 26 (10): 1290–5. PMID 21628698. doi:10.1177/0883073811405201. （原始内容存档于2015-11-20）. 
  94. ^ CDC, Attention-Deficit / Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 16 March 2016 [17 April 2016], （原始内容存档于14 April 2016） 
  95. ^ Burger PH, Goecke TW, Fasching PA, Moll G, Heinrich H, Beckmann MW, Kornhuber J. [How does maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy affect the development of attention deficit/hyperactivity syndrome in the child]. Fortschritte der Neurologie-Psychiatrie (Review). September 2011, 79 (9): 500–6. PMID 21739408. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1273360 （German）. 
  96. ^ Eubig PA, Aguiar A, Schantz SL. Lead and PCBs as risk factors for attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Environmental Health Perspectives (Review. Research Support, N.I.H., Extramural. Research Support, U.S. Gov't, Non-P.H.S.). December 2010, 118 (12): 1654–67. PMC 3002184  . PMID 20829149. doi:10.1289/ehp.0901852. 
  97. ^ de Cock M, Maas YG, van de Bor M. Does perinatal exposure to endocrine disruptors induce autism spectrum and attention deficit hyperactivity disorders? Review. Acta Paediatrica (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). August 2012, 101 (8): 811–8. PMID 22458970. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2012.02693.x. 
  98. ^ Abbott LC, Winzer-Serhan UH. Smoking during pregnancy: lessons learned from epidemiological studies and experimental studies using animal models. Critical Reviews in Toxicology (Review). April 2012, 42 (4): 279–303. PMID 22394313. doi:10.3109/10408444.2012.658506. 
  99. ^ Thapar A, Cooper M, Jefferies R, Stergiakouli E. What causes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder?. Archives of Disease in Childhood (Review. Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't). March 2012, 97 (3): 260–5. PMC 3927422  . PMID 21903599. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2011-300482. 
  100. ^ Millichap JG. Etiologic classification of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics (Review). February 2008, 121 (2): e358–65. PMID 18245408. doi:10.1542/peds.2007-1332. 
  101. ^ Ystrom E, Gustavson K, Brandlistuen RE, Knudsen GP, Magnus P, Susser E, Davey Smith G, Stoltenberg C, Surén P, Håberg SE, Hornig M, Lipkin WI, Nordeng H, Reichborn-Kjennerud T. Prenatal Exposure to Acetaminophen and Risk of ADHD. Pediatrics. November 2017, 140 (5): e20163840. PMC 5654387  . PMID 29084830. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-3840. hdl:11250/2465905. 
  102. ^ Wolraich ML. An Association Between Prenatal Acetaminophen Use and ADHD: The Benefits of Large Data Sets. Pediatrics. November 2017, 140 (5): e20172703. PMID 29084834. doi:10.1542/peds.2017-2703. 
  103. ^ Eme R. ADHD: an integration with pediatric traumatic brain injury. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics (Review). April 2012, 12 (4): 475–83. PMID 22449218. doi:10.1586/ern.12.15. 
  104. ^ 104.0 104.1 104.2 104.3 104.4 Mayes R, Bagwell C, Erkulwater JL. Medicating Children: ADHD and Pediatric Mental Health illustrated. Harvard University Press. 2009: 4–24. ISBN 978-0-674-03163-0. 
  105. ^ 105.0 105.1 Millichap JG, Yee MM. The diet factor in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics. February 2012, 129 (2): 330–7. PMID 22232312. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2199. （原始内容存档于11 September 2015）. 
  106. ^ 106.0 106.1 106.2 106.3 Sonuga-Barke EJ, Brandeis D, Cortese S, Daley D, Ferrin M, Holtmann M, Stevenson J, Danckaerts M, van der Oord S, Döpfner M, Dittmann RW, Simonoff E, Zuddas A, Banaschewski T, Buitelaar J, Coghill D, Hollis C, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Wong IC, Sergeant J. Nonpharmacological interventions for ADHD: systematic review and meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials of dietary and psychological treatments. The American Journal of Psychiatry. March 2013, 170 (3): 275–89. PMID 23360949. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.12070991. Free fatty acid supplementation and artificial food color exclusions appear to have beneficial effects on ADHD symptoms, although the effect of the former are small and those of the latter may be limited to ADHD patients with food sensitivities... 
  107. ^ Tomaska LD, Brooke-Taylor S. Food Additives – General. Motarjemi Y, Moy GG, Todd EC (编). Encyclopedia of Food Safety 3 1st. Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press: 449. 2014. ISBN 978-0-12-378613-5. OCLC 865335120. 
  108. ^ FDA, Background Document for the Food Advisory Committee: Certified Color Additives in Food and Possible Association with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children (PDF), U.S. Food and Drug Administration, March 2011, （原始内容存档 (PDF)于6 November 2015） 
  109. ^ 109.0 109.1 Nigg JT, Holton K. Restriction and elimination diets in ADHD treatment. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America (Review). October 2014, 23 (4): 937–53. PMC 4322780  . PMID 25220094. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.010. an elimination diet produces a small aggregate effect but may have greater benefit among some children. Very few studies enable proper evaluation of the likelihood of response in children with ADHD who are not already preselected based on prior diet response. 
  110. ^ Mental health of children and adolescents (PDF). 2005-01-15 [2011-10-13]. （原始内容 (PDF)存档于2009-10-24）. 
  111. ^ Parens E, Johnston J. Facts, values, and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): an update on the controversies. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. January 2009, 3 (1): 1. PMC 2637252  . PMID 19152690. doi:10.1186/1753-2000-3-1. 
  112. ^ Szasz T. Psychiatric Medicine: Disorder. Pharmacracy: medicine and politics in America. Westport, CT: Praeger. 2001: 101. ISBN 978-0-275-97196-0 –通过Google Books. Mental diseases are invented and then given a name, for example attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). 
  113. ^ Holland, Josephine; Sayal, Kapil. Relative age and ADHD symptoms, diagnosis and medication: a systematic review. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. 2018-10-06. ISSN 1435-165X. PMID 30293121. doi:10.1007/s00787-018-1229-6. 
  114. ^ Parritz R. Disorders of Childhood: Development and Psychopathology. Cengage Learning. 2013: 151. ISBN 978-1-285-09606-3. 
  115. ^ 115.0 115.1 [110] Stimulants for ADHD in children: Revisited | Therapeutics Initiative. 28 May 2018 [6 July 2018]. 
  116. ^ Stockman JA. Year Book of Pediatrics 2014 E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences. 2016: 163. ISBN 9780323265270 （英语）. 
  117. ^ 117.0 117.1 117.2 117.3 117.4 Chandler DJ, Waterhouse BD, Gao WJ. New perspectives on catecholaminergic regulation of executive circuits: evidence for independent modulation of prefrontal functions by midbrain dopaminergic and noradrenergic neurons. Frontiers in Neural Circuits. May 2014, 8: 53. PMC 4033238  . PMID 24904299. doi:10.3389/fncir.2014.00053. 
  118. ^ 118.00 118.01 118.02 118.03 118.04 118.05 118.06 118.07 118.08 118.09 118.10 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapters 10 and 13. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 266, 315, 318–323. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. Early results with structural MRI show thinning of the cerebral cortex in ADHD subjects compared with age-matched controls in prefrontal cortex and posterior parietal cortex, areas involved in working memory and attention. 
  119. ^ 119.0 119.1 119.2 119.3 119.4 119.5 119.6 119.7 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Chapter 6: Widely Projecting Systems: Monoamines, Acetylcholine, and Orexin. Sydor A, Brown RY (编). Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 148, 154–157. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. DA has multiple actions in the prefrontal cortex. It promotes the "cognitive control" of behavior: the selection and successful monitoring of behavior to facilitate attainment of chosen goals. Aspects of cognitive control in which DA plays a role include working memory, the ability to hold information "on line" in order to guide actions, suppression of prepotent behaviors that compete with goal-directed actions, and control of attention and thus the ability to overcome distractions. Cognitive control is impaired in several disorders, including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. ... Noradrenergic projections from the LC thus interact with dopaminergic projections from the VTA to regulate cognitive control. ... it has not been shown that 5HT makes a therapeutic contribution to treatment of ADHD. 
    NOTE: DA: dopamine, LC: locus coeruleus, VTA: ventral tegmental area, 5HT: serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)
  120. ^ 120.0 120.1 120.2 Castellanos FX, Proal E. Large-scale brain systems in ADHD: beyond the prefrontal-striatal model. Trends in Cognitive Sciences. January 2012, 16 (1): 17–26. PMC 3272832  . PMID 22169776. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2011.11.007. Recent conceptualizations of ADHD have taken seriously the distributed nature of neuronal processing [10,11,35,36]. Most of the candidate networks have focused on prefrontal-striatal-cerebellar circuits, although other posterior regions are also being proposed [10]. 
  121. ^ 121.0 121.1 121.2 Cortese S, Kelly C, Chabernaud C, Proal E, Di Martino A, Milham MP, Castellanos FX. Toward systems neuroscience of ADHD: a meta-analysis of 55 fMRI studies. The American Journal of Psychiatry. October 2012, 169 (10): 1038–55. PMC 3879048  . PMID 22983386. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2012.11101521. 
  122. ^ Krain AL, Castellanos FX. Brain development and ADHD. Clinical Psychology Review. August 2006, 26 (4): 433–44. PMID 16480802. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2006.01.005. 
  123. ^ Hoogman, Martine. Subcortical brain volume differences in participants with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adults: a cross-sectional mega-analysis.. Lancet Psychiatry. 2017, 4 (4): 310–319. PMC 5933934  . PMID 28219628. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30049-4. 
  124. ^ Douglas. Hemispheric brain asymmetry differences in youths with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. NeuroImage: Clinical. 2018, 18: 744–752. PMC 5988460  . PMID 29876263. doi:10.1016/j.nicl.2018.02.020. 
  125. ^ Fusar-Poli P, Rubia K, Rossi G, Sartori G, Balottin U. Striatal dopamine transporter alterations in ADHD: pathophysiology or adaptation to psychostimulants? A meta-analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry. March 2012, 169 (3): 264–72. PMID 22294258. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2011.11060940. 
  126. ^ 126.0 126.1 126.2 Bidwell LC, McClernon FJ, Kollins SH. Cognitive enhancers for the treatment of ADHD. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. August 2011, 99 (2): 262–74. PMC 3353150  . PMID 21596055. doi:10.1016/j.pbb.2011.05.002. 
  127. ^ Cortese S. The neurobiology and genetics of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): what every clinician should know. European Journal of Paediatric Neurology. September 2012, 16 (5): 422–33. PMID 22306277. doi:10.1016/j.ejpn.2012.01.009. 
  128. ^ Lesch KP, Merker S, Reif A, Novak M. Dances with black widow spiders: dysregulation of glutamate signalling enters centre stage in ADHD. European Neuropsychopharmacology. June 2013, 23 (6): 479–91. PMID 22939004. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.013. 
  129. ^ 129.0 129.1 Diamond A. Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology. 2013, 64: 135–68. PMC 4084861  . PMID 23020641. doi:10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750. EFs and prefrontal cortex are the first to suffer, and suffer disproportionately, if something is not right in your life. They suffer first, and most, if you are stressed (Arnsten 1998, Liston et al. 2009, Oaten & Cheng 2005), sad (Hirt et al. 2008, von Hecker & Meiser 2005), lonely (Baumeister et al. 2002, Cacioppo & Patrick 2008, Campbell et al. 2006, Tun et al. 2012), sleep deprived (Barnes et al. 2012, Huang et al. 2007), or not physically fit (Best 2010, Chaddock et al. 2011, Hillman et al. 2008). Any of these can cause you to appear to have a disorder of EFs, such as ADHD, when you do not. 
  130. ^ Skodzik T, Holling H, Pedersen A. Long-Term Memory Performance in Adult ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders. February 2017, 21 (4): 267–283. PMID 24232170. doi:10.1177/1087054713510561. 
  131. ^ Lambek R, Tannock R, Dalsgaard S, Trillingsgaard A, Damm D, Thomsen PH. Validating neuropsychological subtypes of ADHD: how do children with and without an executive function deficit differ?. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. August 2010, 51 (8): 895–904. PMID 20406332. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02248.x. 
  132. ^ Nigg JT, Willcutt EG, Doyle AE, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Causal heterogeneity in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: do we need neuropsychologically impaired subtypes?. Biological Psychiatry. June 2005, 57 (11): 1224–30. PMID 15949992. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.08.025. 
  133. ^ 133.0 133.1 133.2 133.3 Modesto-Lowe V, Chaplin M, Soovajian V, Meyer A. Are motivation deficits underestimated in patients with ADHD? A review of the literature. Postgraduate Medicine. July 2013, 125 (4): 47–52. PMID 23933893. doi:10.3810/pgm.2013.07.2677. Behavioral studies show altered processing of reinforcement and incentives in children with ADHD. These children respond more impulsively to rewards and choose small, immediate rewards over larger, delayed incentives. Interestingly, a high intensity of reinforcement is effective in improving task performance in children with ADHD. Pharmacotherapy may also improve task persistence in these children. ... Previous studies suggest that a clinical approach using interventions to improve motivational processes in patients with ADHD may improve outcomes as children with ADHD transition into adolescence and adulthood. 
  134. ^ 134.0 134.1 National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health. Diagnosis. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Diagnosis and Management of ADHD in Children, Young People and Adults. NICE Clinical Guidelines 72. Leicester: British Psychological Society. 2009: 116–7, 119. ISBN 978-1-85433-471-8. （原始内容存档于13 January 2016） –通过NCBI Bookshelf. 
  135. ^ MerckMedicus Modules: ADHD –Pathophysiology. August 2002. （原始内容存档于1 May 2010）. 
  136. ^ Wiener JM, Dulcan MK. Textbook Of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry illustrated. American Psychiatric Publishing. 2004 [2 November 2014]. ISBN 978-1-58562-057-9. （原始内容存档于6 May 2016）. 
  137. ^ Wolraich M, Brown L, Brown RT, DuPaul G, Earls M, Feldman HM, Ganiats TG, Kaplanek B, Meyer B, Perrin J, Pierce K, Reiff M, Stein MT, Visser S. ADHD: clinical practice guideline for the diagnosis, evaluation, and treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Pediatrics. November 2011, 128 (5): 1007–22. PMC 4500647  . PMID 22003063. doi:10.1542/peds.2011-2654. 
  138. ^ Sand T, Breivik N, Herigstad A. [Assessment of ADHD with EEG]. Tidsskrift for den Norske Laegeforening. February 2013, 133 (3): 312–6. PMID 23381169. doi:10.4045/tidsskr.12.0224 （挪威语）. 
  139. ^ Millichap JG, Millichap JJ, Stack CV. Utility of the electroencephalogram in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. July 2011, 42 (3): 180–4. PMID 21870470. doi:10.1177/155005941104200307. 
  140. ^ FDA permits marketing of first brain wave test to help assess children and teens for ADHD. United States Food and Drug Administration. 15 July 2013. （原始内容存档于25 September 2013）. 
  141. ^ Lenartowicz A, Loo SK. Use of EEG to diagnose ADHD. Current Psychiatry Reports. November 2014, 16 (11): 498. PMC 4633088  . PMID 25234074. doi:10.1007/s11920-014-0498-0. 
  142. ^ Ogrim G, Kropotov J, Hestad K. The quantitative EEG theta/beta ratio in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and normal controls: sensitivity, specificity, and behavioral correlates. Psychiatry Research. August 2012, 198 (3): 482–8. PMID 22425468. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2011.12.041. 
  143. ^ Smith BJ, Barkley RA, Shapiro CJ. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Mash EJ, Barkley RA (编). Assessment of Childhood Disorders 4th. New York, NY: Guilford Press. 2007: 53–131. ISBN 978-1-59385-493-5. 
  144. ^ 144.0 144.1 Steinau S. Diagnostic Criteria in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder – Changes in DSM 5. Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2013, 4: 49. PMC 3667245  . PMID 23755024. doi:10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00049. 
  145. ^ Berger I. Diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: much ado about something (PDF). The Israel Medical Association Journal. September 2011, 13 (9): 571–4. PMID 21991721. 
  146. ^ ICD-11 – Mortality and Morbidity Statistics. icd.who.int. [23 June 2018] （英语）. 
  147. ^ Culpepper L, Mattingly G. Challenges in identifying and managing attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in adults in the primary care setting: a review of the literature. Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. 2010, 12 (6): PCC.10r00951. PMC 3067998  . PMID 21494335. doi:10.4088/PCC.10r00951pur. 
  148. ^ Consumer Reports; Drug Effectiveness Review Project. Evaluating Prescription Drugs Used to Treat: Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Comparing Effectiveness, Safety, and Price (PDF). Best Buy Drugs. March 2012: 2 [2013-04-12]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2012-12-15）. 
  149. ^ Owens JA. Sleep disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Current Psychiatry Reports. October 2008, 10 (5): 439–44. PMID 18803919. doi:10.1007/s11920-008-0070-x. 
  150. ^ Walters AS, Silvestri R, Zucconi M, Chandrashekariah R, Konofal E. Review of the possible relationship and hypothetical links between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and the simple sleep related movement disorders, parasomnias, hypersomnias, and circadian rhythm disorders. Journal of Clinical Sleep Medicine. December 2008, 4 (6): 591–600. PMC 2603539  . PMID 19110891. 
  151. ^ 151.0 151.1 Lal C, Strange C, Bachman D. Neurocognitive impairment in obstructive sleep apnea. Chest. June 2012, 141 (6): 1601–1610. PMID 22670023. doi:10.1378/chest.11-2214. 
  152. ^ 152.0 152.1 Irsfeld M, Spadafore M, Prüß BM. β-phenylethylamine, a small molecule with a large impact. WebmedCentral. 2013-09, 4 (9). PMC 3904499  . PMID 24482732. While diagnosis of ADHD is usually done by analysis of the symptoms (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), PEA was recently described as a biomarker for ADHD 
  153. ^ 153.0 153.1 153.2 153.3 Scassellati C, Bonvicini C, Faraone SV, Gennarelli M. Biomarkers and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review and meta-analyses. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. October 2012, 51 (10): 1003–1019.e20. PMID 23021477. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2012.08.015. 
  154. ^ Al Rahbi HA, Al-Sabri RM, Chitme HR. Interventions by pharmacists in out-patient pharmaceutical care. Saudi Pharmaceutical Journal. April 2014, 22 (2): 101–6. PMC 3950532  . PMID 24648820. doi:10.1016/j.jsps.2013.04.001. 
  155. ^ Shaw M, Hodgkins P, Caci H, Young S, Kahle J, Woods AG, Arnold LE. A systematic review and analysis of long-term outcomes in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: effects of treatment and non-treatment. BMC Medicine. September 2012, 10: 99. PMC 3520745  . PMID 22947230. doi:10.1186/1741-7015-10-99. 
  156. ^ Fabiano GA, Pelham WE, Coles EK, Gnagy EM, Chronis-Tuscano A, O'Connor BC. A meta-analysis of behavioral treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Psychology Review. March 2009, 29 (2): 129–40. PMID 19131150. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2008.11.001. 
  157. ^ Kratochvil CJ, Vaughan BS, Barker A, Corr L, Wheeler A, Madaan V. Review of pediatric attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder for the general psychiatrist. The Psychiatric Clinics of North America. March 2009, 32 (1): 39–56. PMID 19248915. doi:10.1016/j.psc.2008.10.001. 
  158. ^ Evans SW, Owens JS, Bunford N. Evidence-based psychosocial treatments for children and adolescents with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 2014, 43 (4): 527–51. PMC 4025987  . PMID 24245813. doi:10.1080/15374416.2013.850700. 
  159. ^ Arns M, de Ridder S, Strehl U, Breteler M, Coenen A. Efficacy of neurofeedback treatment in ADHD: the effects on inattention, impulsivity and hyperactivity: a meta-analysis. Clinical EEG and Neuroscience. July 2009, 40 (3): 180–9. PMID 19715181. doi:10.1177/155005940904000311. 
  160. ^ Daley D, Van Der Oord S, Ferrin M, Cortese S, Danckaerts M, Doepfner M, Van den Hoofdakker BJ, Coghill D, Thompson M, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Brandeis D, Buitelaar J, Dittmann RW, Hollis C, Holtmann M, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Rothenberger A, Santosh P, Simonoff E, Soutullo C, Steinhausen HC, Stringaris A, Taylor E, Wong IC, Zuddas A, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Practitioner Review: Current best practice in the use of parent training and other behavioural interventions in the treatment of children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (PDF). Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. October 2017, 59 (9): 932–947. PMID 29083042. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12825. 
  161. ^ Cortese S, Ferrin M, Brandeis D, Holtmann M, Aggensteiner P, Daley D, Santosh P, Simonoff E, Stevenson J, Stringaris A, Sonuga-Barke EJ. Neurofeedback for Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Meta-Analysis of Clinical and Neuropsychological Outcomes From Randomized Controlled Trials. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. June 2016, 55 (6): 444–55. PMID 27238063. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2016.03.007. hdl:1854/LU-8123796. 
  162. ^ Bjornstad G, Montgomery P. Bjornstad GJ , 编. Family therapy for attention-deficit disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. April 2005, (2): CD005042. PMID 15846741. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005042.pub2. 
  163. ^ Turkington, Carol; Harris, Joseph. attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Encyclopedia of the Brain and Brain Disorders. Infobase Publishing: 47. 2009. ISBN 978-1-4381-2703-3 –通过Google Books. 
  164. ^ Mikami AY. The importance of friendship for youth with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review. June 2010, 13 (2): 181–98. PMC 2921569  . PMID 20490677. doi:10.1007/s10567-010-0067-y. 
  165. ^ 165.0 165.1 165.2 165.3 165.4 Den Heijer AE, Groen Y, Tucha L, Fuermaier AB, Koerts J, Lange KW, Thome J, Tucha O. Sweat it out? The effects of physical exercise on cognition and behavior in children and adults with ADHD: a systematic literature review. Journal of Neural Transmission. 2017-02, 124 (Suppl 1): 3–26. PMC 5281644  . PMID 27400928. doi:10.1007/s00702-016-1593-7. Beneficial chronic effects of cardio exercise were found on various functions as well, including executive functions, attention and behavior. 
  166. ^ 166.0 166.1 Kamp CF, Sperlich B, Holmberg HC. Exercise reduces the symptoms of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and improves social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters. Acta Paediatrica. July 2014, 103 (7): 709–14. PMID 24612421. doi:10.1111/apa.12628. We may conclude that all different types of exercise ... attenuate the characteristic symptoms of ADHD and improve social behaviour, motor skills, strength and neuropsychological parameters without any undesirable side effects. Available reports do not reveal which type, intensity, duration and frequency of exercise is most effective 
  167. ^ 167.0 167.1 Rommel AS, Halperin JM, Mill J, Asherson P, Kuntsi J. Protection from genetic diathesis in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: possible complementary roles of exercise. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. September 2013, 52 (9): 900–10. PMC 4257065  . PMID 23972692. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2013.05.018. The findings from these studies provide some support for the notion that exercise has the potential to act as a protective factor for ADHD. 
  168. ^ 168.0 168.1 168.2 Wigal SB. Efficacy and safety limitations of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder pharmacotherapy in children and adults. CNS Drugs. 2009,. 23 Suppl 1: 21–31. PMID 19621975. doi:10.2165/00023210-200923000-00004. 
  169. ^ 169.0 169.1 Castells X, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Bosch R, Nogueira M, Casas M. Castells X , 编. Amphetamines for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) in adults. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. June 2011, (6): CD007813. PMID 21678370. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007813.pub2. 
  170. ^ 170.0 170.1 Parker J, Wales G, Chalhoub N, Harpin V. The long-term outcomes of interventions for the management of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials. Psychology Research and Behavior Management. 2013-09, 6: 87–99. PMC 3785407  . PMID 24082796. doi:10.2147/PRBM.S49114. Results suggest there is moderate-to-high-level evidence that combined pharmacological and behavioral interventions, and pharmacological interventions alone can be effective in managing the core ADHD symptoms and academic performance at 14 months. However, the effect size may decrease beyond this period. ... Only one paper examining outcomes beyond 36 months met the review criteria. ... There is high level evidence suggesting that pharmacological treatment can have a major beneficial effect on the core symptoms of ADHD (hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity) in approximately 80% of cases compared with placebo controls, in the short term.22 
  171. ^ Storebø OJ, Ramstad E, Krogh HB, Nilausen TD, Skoog M, Holmskov M, et al. Methylphenidate for children and adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. November 2015, 11 (11): CD009885. PMID 26599576. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD009885.pub2. 
  172. ^ 172.0 172.1 Ruiz-Goikoetxea M, Cortese S, Aznarez-Sanado M, Magallón S, Alvarez Zallo N, Luis EO, de Castro-Manglano P, Soutullo C, Arrondo G. Risk of unintentional injuries in children and adolescents with ADHD and the impact of ADHD medications: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. January 2018, 84: 63–71. PMID 29162520. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.11.007. 
  173. ^ Childress AC, Sallee FR. Revisiting clonidine: an innovative add-on option for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Drugs of Today. March 2012, 48 (3): 207–17. PMID 22462040. doi:10.1358/dot.2012.48.3.1750904. 
  174. ^ 174.0 174.1 McDonagh MS, Peterson K, Thakurta S, Low A. Drug Class Review: Pharmacologic Treatments for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Drug Class Reviews. United States Library of Medicine. 2011-12. PMID 22420008. （原始内容存档于2016-08-31）. 
  175. ^ Prasad V, Brogan E, Mulvaney C, Grainge M, Stanton W, Sayal K. How effective are drug treatments for children with ADHD at improving on-task behaviour and academic achievement in the school classroom? A systematic review and meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. April 2013, 22 (4): 203–16. PMID 23179416. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0346-x. 
  176. ^ 176.0 176.1 Kiely B, Adesman A. What we do not know about ADHD… yet. Current Opinion in Pediatrics. June 2015, 27 (3): 395–404. PMID 25888152. doi:10.1097/MOP.0000000000000229. In addition, a consensus has not been reached on the optimal diagnostic criteria for ADHD. Moreover, the benefits and long-term effects of medical and complementary therapies for this disorder continue to be debated. These gaps in knowledge hinder the ability of clinicians to effectively recognize and treat ADHD. 
  177. ^ Hazell P. The challenges to demonstrating long-term effects of psychostimulant treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Current Opinion in Psychiatry. July 2011, 24 (4): 286–90. PMID 21519262. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32834742db. 
  178. ^ Hart H, Radua J, Nakao T, Mataix-Cols D, Rubia K. Meta-analysis of functional magnetic resonance imaging studies of inhibition and attention in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: exploring task-specific, stimulant medication, and age effects. JAMA Psychiatry. February 2013, 70 (2): 185–98. PMID 23247506. doi:10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2013.277. 
  179. ^ Spencer TJ, Brown A, Seidman LJ, Valera EM, Makris N, Lomedico A, Faraone SV, Biederman J. Effect of psychostimulants on brain structure and function in ADHD: a qualitative literature review of magnetic resonance imaging-based neuroimaging studies. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry. September 2013, 74 (9): 902–17. PMC 3801446  . PMID 24107764. doi:10.4088/JCP.12r08287. 
  180. ^ Frodl T, Skokauskas N. Meta-analysis of structural MRI studies in children and adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder indicates treatment effects. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. February 2012, 125 (2): 114–26. PMID 22118249. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01786.x. Basal ganglia regions like the right globus pallidus, the right putamen, and the nucleus caudatus are structurally affected in children with ADHD. These changes and alterations in limbic regions like ACC and amygdala are more pronounced in non-treated populations and seem to diminish over time from child to adulthood. Treatment seems to have positive effects on brain structure. 
  181. ^ Cortese, Samuele; Adamo, Nicoletta; Del Giovane, Cinzia; Mohr-Jensen, Christina; Hayes, Adrian J; Carucci, Sara; Atkinson, Lauren Z; Tessari, Luca; Banaschewski, Tobias; Coghill, David; Hollis, Chris; Simonoff, Emily; Zuddas, Alessandro; Barbui, Corrado; Purgato, Marianna; Steinhausen, Hans-Christoph; Shokraneh, Farhad; Xia, Jun; Cipriani, Andrea. Comparative efficacy and tolerability of medications for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder in children, adolescents, and adults: a systematic review and network meta-analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry. September 2018, 5 (9): 727–738. doi:10.1016/S2215-0366(18)30269-4. 
  182. ^ Greenhill LL, Posner K, Vaughan BS, Kratochvil CJ. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in preschool children. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. April 2008, 17 (2): 347–66, ix. PMID 18295150. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2007.11.004. 
  183. ^ Stevens JR, Wilens TE, Stern TA. Using stimulants for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: clinical approaches and challenges. The Primary Care Companion for CNS Disorders. 2013, 15 (2). PMC 3733520  . PMID 23930227. doi:10.4088/PCC.12f01472. 
  184. ^ Young, Joel L. Individualizing Treatment for Adult ADHD: An Evidence-Based Guideline. Medscape. 2010 [19 June 2016]. （原始内容存档于8 May 2015）. 
  185. ^ Biederman, Joseph. New-Generation Long-Acting Stimulants for the Treatment of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Medscape. 2003 [19 June 2016]. （原始内容存档于7 December 2003）. As most treatment guidelines and prescribing information for stimulant medications relate to experience in school-aged children, prescribed doses for older patients are lacking. Emerging evidence for both methylphenidate and Adderall indicate that when weight-corrected daily doses, equipotent with those used in the treatment of younger patients, are used to treat adults with ADHD, these patients show a very robust clinical response consistent with that observed in pediatric studies. These data suggest that older patients may require a more aggressive approach in terms of dosing, based on the same target dosage ranges that have already been established – for methylphenidate, 1–1.5–2 mg/kg/day, and for D,L-amphetamine, 0.5–0.75–1 mg/kg/day....
    In particular, adolescents and adults are vulnerable to underdosing, and are thus at potential risk of failing to receive adequate dosage levels. As with all therapeutic agents, the efficacy and safety of stimulant medications should always guide prescribing behavior: careful dosage titration of the selected stimulant product should help to ensure that each patient with ADHD receives an adequate dose, so that the clinical benefits of therapy can be fully attained.     
  186. ^ Kessler S. Drug therapy in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Southern Medical Journal. January 1996, 89 (1): 33–8. PMID 8545689. doi:10.1097/00007611-199601000-00005. 
  187. ^ 187.0 187.1 Storebø OJ, Pedersen N, Ramstad E, Kielsholm ML, Nielsen SS, Krogh HB, Moreira-Maia CR, Magnusson FL, Holmskov M, Gerner T, Skoog M, Rosendal S, Groth C, Gillies D, Buch Rasmussen K, Gauci D, Zwi M, Kirubakaran R, Håkonsen SJ, Aagaard L, Simonsen E, Gluud C. Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents – assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. May 2018, 5: CD012069. PMID 29744873. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD012069.pub2. 
  188. ^ 188.0 188.1 188.2 Shoptaw SJ, Kao U, Ling W. Shoptaw SJ, Ali R , 编. Treatment for amphetamine psychosis. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. January 2009, (1): CD003026. PMID 19160215. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003026.pub3. A minority of individuals who use amphetamines develop full-blown psychosis requiring care at emergency departments or psychiatric hospitals. In such cases, symptoms of amphetamine psychosis commonly include paranoid and persecutory delusions as well as auditory and visual hallucinations in the presence of extreme agitation. More common (about 18%) is for frequent amphetamine users to report psychotic symptoms that are sub-clinical and that do not require high-intensity intervention ...
    About 5–15% of the users who develop an amphetamine psychosis fail to recover completely (Hofmann 1983) ...
    Findings from one trial indicate use of antipsychotic medications effectively resolves symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.     
  189. ^ Adderall XR Prescribing Information (PDF). United States Food and Drug Administration. Shire US Inc. December 2013 [30 December 2013]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2013-12-30）. Treatment-emergent psychotic or manic symptoms, e.g., hallucinations, delusional thinking, or mania in children and adolescents without prior history of psychotic illness or mania can be caused by stimulants at usual doses. ... In a pooled analysis of multiple short-term, placebo controlled studies, such symptoms occurred in about 0.1% (4 patients with events out of 3482 exposed to methylphenidate or amphetamine for several weeks at usual doses) of stimulant-treated patients compared to 0 in placebo-treated patients. 
  190. ^ Mosholder AD, Gelperin K, Hammad TA, Phelan K, Johann-Liang R. Hallucinations and other psychotic symptoms associated with the use of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder drugs in children. Pediatrics. 2009-02, 123 (2): 611–6. PMID 19171629. doi:10.1542/peds.2008-0185. 
  191. ^ Kraemer M, Uekermann J, Wiltfang J, Kis B. Methylphenidate-induced psychosis in adult attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: report of 3 new cases and review of the literature. Clinical Neuropharmacology. July 2010, 33 (4): 204–6. PMID 20571380. doi:10.1097/WNF.0b013e3181e29174. 
  192. ^ van de Loo-Neus GH, Rommelse N, Buitelaar JK. To stop or not to stop? How long should medication treatment of attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder be extended?. European Neuropsychopharmacology. 2011-08, 21 (8): 584–99. PMID 21530185. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2011.03.008. 
  193. ^ Ibrahim K, Donyai P. Drug Holidays From ADHD Medication: International Experience Over the Past Four Decades. Journal of Attention Disorders. July 2015, 19 (7): 551–68. PMID 25253684. doi:10.1177/1087054714548035. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2016-06-30）. 
  194. ^ 194.0 194.1 194.2 Malenka RC, Nestler EJ, Hyman SE. Sydor A, Brown RY , 编. Molecular Neuropharmacology: A Foundation for Clinical Neuroscience 2nd. New York: McGraw-Hill Medical. 2009: 323, 368. ISBN 978-0-07-148127-4. supervised use of stimulants at therapeutic doses may decrease risk of experimentation with drugs to self-medicate symptoms. Second, untreated ADHD may lead to school failure, peer rejection, and subsequent association with deviant peer groups that encourage drug misuse. ... amphetamines and methylphenidate are used in low doses to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and in higher doses to treat narcolepsy (Chapter 12). Despite their clinical uses, these drugs are strongly reinforcing, and their long-term use at high doses is linked with potential addiction 
  195. ^ Oregon Health & Science University. Black box warnings of ADHD drugs approved by the US Food and Drug Administration. Portland, Oregon: United States National Library of Medicine. 2009 [17 January 2014]. （原始内容存档于8 September 2017）. 
  196. ^ Ashton H, Gallagher P, Moore B. The adult psychiatrist's dilemma: psychostimulant use in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Psychopharmacology. September 2006, 20 (5): 602–10. PMID 16478756. doi:10.1177/0269881106061710. （原始内容存档于15 August 2009-08-15）. 
  197. ^ Nigg JT, Lewis K, Edinger T, Falk M. Meta-analysis of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptoms, restriction diet, and synthetic food color additives. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. January 2012, 51 (1): 86–97.e8. PMC 4321798  . PMID 22176942. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.10.015. 
  198. ^ Pelsser LM, Frankena K, Toorman J, Rodrigues Pereira R. Diet and ADHD, Reviewing the Evidence: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses of Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Trials Evaluating the Efficacy of Diet Interventions on the Behavior of Children with ADHD. PLoS One (Systematic Review). January 2017, 12 (1): e0169277. PMC 5266211  . PMID 28121994. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0169277.  
  199. ^ Konikowska K, Regulska-Ilow B, Rózańska D. The influence of components of diet on the symptoms of ADHD in children. Roczniki Panstwowego Zakladu Higieny. 2012, 63 (2): 127–34. PMID 22928358. 
  200. ^ Arnold LE, DiSilvestro RA. Zinc in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychopharmacology. August 2005, 15 (4): 619–27. PMID 16190793. doi:10.1089/cap.2005.15.619. hdl:1811/51593. 
  201. ^ Bloch MH, Mulqueen J. Nutritional supplements for the treatment of ADHD. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America. October 2014, 23 (4): 883–97. PMC 4170184  . PMID 25220092. doi:10.1016/j.chc.2014.05.002. 
  202. ^ Krause J. SPECT and PET of the dopamine transporter in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Expert Review of Neurotherapeutics. April 2008, 8 (4): 611–25. PMID 18416663. doi:10.1586/14737175.8.4.611. Zinc binds at ... extracellular sites of the DAT [103], serving as a DAT inhibitor. In this context, controlled double-blind studies in children are of interest, which showed positive effects of zinc [supplementation] on symptoms of ADHD [105,106]. It should be stated that at this time [supplementation] with zinc is not integrated in any ADHD treatment algorithm. 
  203. ^ Bloch MH, Qawasmi A. Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation for the treatment of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology: systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. October 2011, 50 (10): 991–1000. PMC 3625948  . PMID 21961774. doi:10.1016/j.jaac.2011.06.008. 
  204. ^ Königs A, Kiliaan AJ. Critical appraisal of omega-3 fatty acids in attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder treatment. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. July 2016, 12: 1869–82. PMC 4968854  . PMID 27555775. doi:10.2147/NDT.S68652. 
  205. ^ Faraone SV, Asherson P, Banaschewski T, Biederman J, Buitelaar JK, Ramos-Quiroga JA, Rohde LA, Sonuga-Barke EJ, Tannock R, Franke B. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (PDF). Nature Reviews. Disease Primers (Review). August 2015, 1: 15020. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.497.1346  . PMID 27189265. doi:10.1038/nrdp.2015.20. 
  206. ^ Lipkin, Paul H.; Mostofsky, Stewart. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neurobiology of Disease. Elsevier. 2007: 631–639. ISBN 978-0-12-088592-3. doi:10.1016/b978-012088592-3/50059-1. Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is the most common developmental disorder of childhood, affecting approximately 3–9% of schoolchildren [1,2]. 
  207. ^ Thomas, R.; Sanders, S.; Doust, J.; Beller, E.; Glasziou, P. Prevalence of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. PEDIATRICS (secondary source or tertiary source) (American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP)). 2015, 135 (4): e994–e1001 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-3482. 7.2% (95% confidence interval: 6.7 to 7.8) 
  208. ^ Kessler, Ronald C.; Adler, Lenard; Barkley, Russell; Biederman, Joseph; Conners, C. Keith; Demler, Olga; Faraone, Stephen V.; Greenhill, Laurence L.; Howes, Mary J.; Secnik, Kristina; Spencer, Thomas; Ustun, T. Bedirhan; Walters, Ellen E.; Zaslavsky, Alan M. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: Results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. The American journal of psychiatry. 1963-06-08, 163 (4) [2018-09-26]. PMID 16585449. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.163.4.716. 
  209. ^ RC, Kessler; Al., Et. The prevalence and correlates of adult ADHD in the United States: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication. - PubMed. NCBI. 2018-09-26 [2018-09-26]. 
  210. ^ 高淑芬. 找回專注力：成人ADHD全方位自助手冊. 台北: 心靈工坊. 2016-05-09 [2016-12-12]. ISBN 9789863570592 （中文（臺灣））. 
  211. ^ TSCAP. 臺灣兒童青少年精神醫學會新聞稿20160603. Tscap.org.tw. [2016-12-27]. （原始内容存档于2016-11-30）. 
  212. ^ Polanczyk, Guilherme; de Lima, Maurício Silva; Horta, Bernardo Lessa; Biederman, Joseph; Rohde, Luis Augusto. The Worldwide Prevalence of ADHD: A Systematic Review and Metaregression Analysis. American Journal of Psychiatry (American Psychiatric Publishing). 2007, 164 (6): 942–948. ISSN 0002-953X. doi:10.1176/ajp.2007.164.6.942. 
  213. ^ 213.0 213.1 Polanczyk G, de Lima MS, Horta BL, Biederman J, Rohde LA. The worldwide prevalence of ADHD: a systematic review and metaregression analysis. The American Journal of Psychiatry. June 2007, 164 (6): 942–8. PMID 17541055. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.164.6.942. 
  214. ^ Jones, edited by Ming Tsuang, Mauricio Tohen, Peter B. Textbook of psychiatric epidemiology 3rd. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. : 450. ISBN 9780470977408. 
  215. ^ 全民健康保險研究資料庫 National Health Insurance Research Database. Taiwan, Republic of China. . [2017-03-17]. （原始内容存档于2017-02-15）. （中文）（英文）
  216. ^ Domenic Greco, PhD. Is Prevalence of ADD/ADHD the Same in the U.S., Europe, and Japan?. 2012-09-10 [2017-04-22]. （原始内容存档于2012-09-10）. Japan reports a 7% of school-aged children have ADD/ADHD. 
  217. ^ Park, Subin; Cho, Maeng Je; Chang, Sung Man; Jeon, Hong Jin; Cho, Seong-Jin; Kim, Byung-Soo; Bae, Jae Nam; Wang, Hee-Ryung; Ahn, Joon Ho; Hong, Jin Pyo. Prevalence, correlates, and comorbidities of adult ADHD symptoms in Korea: Results of the Korean epidemiologic catchment area study. Psychiatry Research (Elsevier BV). 2011, 186 (2-3): 378–383 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2010.07.047. In the National Comorbidity Survey Replication, 4.4% of 3199 subjects aged 18 to 44 years met the DSM-IV criteria for ADHD (Kessler et al., 2006). The acceptance of ADHD symptoms in adults, because the prevalence rates of ADHD in Korean school-age children are similar to the rates reported in Western countries (Kim, 2002). 
  218. ^ Pham, Hoai Danh; Nguyen, Huu Bao Han; Tran, Diep Tuan. Prevalence of ADHD in primary school children in Vinh Long, Vietnam. Pediatrics international : official journal of the Japan Pediatric Society (Wiley). 2015-08-19, 57 (5): 856–859. ISSN 1328-8067. PMID 25864909. doi:10.1111/ped.12656. 
  219. ^ Wang, Tingting; Liu, Kaihua; Li, Zhanzhan; Xu, Yang; Liu, Yuan; Shi, Wenpei; Chen, Lizhang. Prevalence of attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder among children and adolescents in China: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Psychiatry (systematic review, meta-analysis (secondary source)). 2017, 17 (1). ISSN 1471-244X. doi:10.1186/s12888-016-1187-9. 
  220. ^ 陳國齡. Child with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) 認識注意力不足 /過度活躍症 (PDF). 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區政府教育局 The government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of People's Republic of China. [2017-04-22]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于2017-03-29）. 
  221. ^ Davis, J. Mark; Lao, Ian Leong. Comparison of the Level and Prevalence of ADHD Symptoms in Macao (China) and U.S. University Students. International Journal of School & Educational Psychology (Informa UK Limited). 2013, 1 (4): 269–277 [2017-04-21]. doi:10.1080/21683603.2013.804469. 
  222. ^ 222.0 222.1 222.2 222.3 222.4 ADHD Throughout the Years (PDF). Center For Disease Control and Prevention. [2 August 2013]. （原始内容存档 (PDF)于7 August 2013）. 
  223. ^ National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence. CG72 Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): full guideline (PDF). NHS. 24 September 2008. 
  224. ^ Dalsgaard, S. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).. European child & adolescent psychiatry. February 2013,. 22 Suppl 1: S43–8. PMID 23202886. doi:10.1007/s00787-012-0360-z. 
  225. ^ Palmer ED, Finger S. An early description of ADHD (inattentive subtype): Dr Alexander Crichton and 'Mental restlessness' (1798). Child and Adolescent Mental Health（英语：Child and Adolescent Mental Health）. May 2001, 6 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1111/1475-3588.00324. 
  226. ^ Crichton A. An inquiry into the nature and origin of mental derangement: comprehending a concise system of the physiology and pathology of the human mind and a history of the passions and their effects. United Kingdom: AMS Press. 1976: 271 [1798] [17 January 2014]. ISBN 978-0-404-08212-3 –通过Google Books. 
  227. ^ Still, G. Some Abnormal Psychical Conditions in Children: The Goulstonian Lectures. Lancet. 1902: 1008–1012. 
  228. ^ 228.0 228.1 Rafalovich, A. The Conceptual History of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Idiocy, Imbecility, Encephalitis and the Child Deviant. Deviant Behavior. 2001: 93–115. 
  229. ^ Tredgold, C. Mental Deficiency (Amentia) 1. New York: William Wood & Company. 1908. 
  230. ^ Connors, C. Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Historical Development and Overview. Journal of Attention Disorders. 2000: 173–191. 
  231. ^ Millichap JG. Definition and History of ADHD. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Handbook: A Physician's Guide to ADHD 2nd. Springer Science. 2010: 2–3. ISBN 978-1-4419-1396-8. LCCN 2009938108. doi:10.1007/978-104419-1397-5_1 (不活跃 2018-11-21) –通过Google Books. 
  232. ^ Weiss M, Hechtman LT, Weiss G. ADHD in Adulthood: An Introduction. ADHD in Adulthood: A Guide to Current Theory, Diagnosis, and Treatment. Taylor & Francis. 2001: 34. ISBN 978-0-8018-6822-1 –通过Google Books. 
  233. ^ Rasmussen N. Making the first anti-depressant: amphetamine in American medicine, 1929–1950. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. July 2006, 61 (3): 288–323. PMID 16492800. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrj039. 
  234. ^ Patrick KS, Straughn AB, Perkins JS, González MA. Evolution of stimulants to treat ADHD: transdermal methylphenidate. Human Psychopharmacology. January 2009, 24 (1): 1–17. PMC 2629554  . PMID 19051222. doi:10.1002/hup.992. 
  235. ^ Gross, M. Origin of Stimulant Use for Treatment of Attention Deficit Disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1995: 298–299. 
  236. ^ Brown, W. Charles Bradley, M.D.. American Journal of Psychiatry. 1998: 968. 
  237. ^ Barkley, R. Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Handbook for Diagnosis and Treatment. New York: Guilford. 2006. 
  238. ^ Biederman, J.; Faraone, S.; Keenan, K.; Knee, D.; Tsuang, M. Family-Genetic and Psychosocial Risk Factors in DSM-III Attention Deficit Disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 1990: 526–533. 
  239. ^ Lahey, B.; Applegate, B.; McBurnett, K.; Biederman, J.; Greenhill, L.; Hynd, G; Barkley, R.; Newcorn, J.; Jensen, P. DSM-IV Field Trials for Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Children and Adolescents. The American Journal of Psychiatry. 1994: 1673–1685. 
  240. ^ Where Did ADHD Awareness Month Get Its Start?. Attention Deficit Disorder Association. [2018-03-08]. （原始内容存档于2018-03-08）. 
  241. ^ 2018 Health Awareness Calendar. Healthline. 2018-05-31 [2018-06-13]. （原始内容存档于2017-09-11）. 
  242. ^ Foreman DM. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: legal and ethical aspects. Archives of Disease in Childhood. February 2006, 91 (2): 192–4. PMC 2082674  . PMID 16428370. doi:10.1136/adc.2004.064576. 
  243. ^ Faraone SV. The scientific foundation for understanding attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder as a valid psychiatric disorder. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. February 2005, 14 (1): 1–10. PMID 15756510. doi:10.1007/s00787-005-0429-z. 
  244. ^ Boseley, Sarah. Hyperactive children may suffer from genetic disorder, says study. The Guardian. 30 September 2010. （原始内容存档于8 July 2017）. 
  245. ^ 245.0 245.1 Cormier E. Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and update . Journal of Pediatric Nursing. October 2008, 23 (5): 345–57. PMID 18804015. doi:10.1016/j.pedn.2008.01.003. 
  246. ^ Schwarz, Alan. The Selling of Attention Deficit Disorder. The New York Times (14 December 2013). 14 December 2013 [26 February 2015]. （原始内容存档于1 March 2015）. 
  247. ^ Elder TE. The importance of relative standards in ADHD diagnoses: evidence based on exact birth dates. Journal of Health Economics. September 2010, 29 (5): 641–56. PMC 2933294  . PMID 20638739. doi:10.1016/j.jhealeco.2010.06.003. 
  248. ^ Merten EC, Cwik JC, Margraf J, Schneider S. Overdiagnosis of mental disorders in children and adolescents (in developed countries). Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health. 2017, 11: 5. PMC 5240230  . PMID 28105068. doi:10.1186/s13034-016-0140-5. 
  249. ^ Taylor E. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: overdiagnosed or diagnoses missed?. Archives of Disease in Childhood. April 2017, 102 (4): 376–379. PMID 27821518. doi:10.1136/archdischild-2016-310487. 
  250. ^ 亞洲不應使用西方精神科對於注意力不足過動症（ADHD）的診斷，及興奮劑處方的治療 互联网档案馆的存檔，存档日期2017-09-02.

延伸閱讀 编辑

外部連結 编辑

  维基共享资源上的相关多媒体资源：Wolfch/注意力不足過動症
分類
外部資源
主要的文章
可分為
藥物
中樞神經刺激劑
非中樞神經刺激劑
相關支持團體（英语：support group）
台灣
相關或過時的議題
中樞神經系統
刺激剂
  • Dexedrine
  • ProCentra
  • Zenzedi
  • Vyvanse
  • Desoxyn
  • 利他能
  • 專思達
  • Aptensio
  • Biphentin
  • Daytrana
  • Equasym
  • Medikinet
  • Metadate
  • Methylin
  • Quillivant
  • Focalin
非中樞神經刺激劑
α2 adrenoceptor（英语：Alpha-adrenergic agonist）
agonists（英语：Alpha-adrenergic agonist）
抗抑郁药
其他
相關條目
主條目和藥品
無
  • Dexedrine
  • ProCentra
  • Zenzedi
  • Vyvanse
神經藥理學
受抑制的载体蛋白
有藥效的苯丙胺代謝後產物
相關條目
情緒/行為（英语：Emotional and behavioral disorders）
取自“https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Wolfch/注意力不足過動症&oldid=57143565”